Release: 1.4.49 | Release Date: July 5, 2023

# SQLAlchemy 1.4 Documentation

# Describing Databases with MetaData

This section discusses the fundamental `Table`, `Column` and `MetaData` objects.

See also

Working with Database Metadata - tutorial introduction to SQLAlchemy’s database metadata concept in the SQLAlchemy 1.4 / 2.0 Tutorial

A collection of metadata entities is stored in an object aptly named `MetaData`:

    from sqlalchemy import MetaData

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

`MetaData` is a container object that keeps together many different features of a database (or multiple databases) being described.

To represent a table, use the `Table` class. Its two primary arguments are the table name, then the `MetaData` object which it will be associated with. The remaining positional arguments are mostly `Column` objects describing each column:

    from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, Integer, String

    user = Table(
        "user",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("user_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("user_name", String(16), nullable=False),
        Column("email_address", String(60)),
        Column("nickname", String(50), nullable=False),
    )

Above, a table called `user` is described, which contains four columns. The primary key of the table consists of the `user_id` column. Multiple columns may be assigned the `primary_key=True` flag which denotes a multi-column primary key, known as a composite primary key.

Note also that each column describes its datatype using objects corresponding to genericized types, such as `Integer` and `String`. SQLAlchemy features dozens of types of varying levels of specificity as well as the ability to create custom types. Documentation on the type system can be found at SQL Datatype Objects.

## Accessing Tables and Columns

The `MetaData` object contains all of the schema constructs we’ve associated with it. It supports a few methods of accessing these table objects, such as the `sorted_tables` accessor which returns a list of each `Table` object in order of foreign key dependency (that is, each table is preceded by all tables which it references):

    >>> for t in metadata_obj.sorted_tables:
    ...     print(t.name)
    user
    user_preference
    invoice
    invoice_item

In most cases, individual `Table` objects have been explicitly declared, and these objects are typically accessed directly as module-level variables in an application. Once a `Table` has been defined, it has a full set of accessors which allow inspection of its properties. Given the following `Table` definition:

    employees = Table(
        "employees",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("employee_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("employee_name", String(60), nullable=False),
        Column("employee_dept", Integer, ForeignKey("departments.department_id")),
    )

Note the `ForeignKey` object used in this table - this construct defines a reference to a remote table, and is fully described in Defining Foreign Keys. Methods of accessing information about this table include:

    # access the column "employee_id":
    employees.columns.employee_id

    # or just
    employees.c.employee_id

    # via string
    employees.c["employee_id"]

    # iterate through all columns
    for c in employees.c:
        print(c)

    # get the table's primary key columns
    for primary_key in employees.primary_key:
        print(primary_key)

    # get the table's foreign key objects:
    for fkey in employees.foreign_keys:
        print(fkey)

    # access the table's MetaData:
    employees.metadata

    # access the table's bound Engine or Connection, if its MetaData is bound:
    employees.bind

    # access a column's name, type, nullable, primary key, foreign key
    employees.c.employee_id.name
    employees.c.employee_id.type
    employees.c.employee_id.nullable
    employees.c.employee_id.primary_key
    employees.c.employee_dept.foreign_keys

    # get the "key" of a column, which defaults to its name, but can
    # be any user-defined string:
    employees.c.employee_name.key

    # access a column's table:
    employees.c.employee_id.table is employees

    # get the table related by a foreign key
    list(employees.c.employee_dept.foreign_keys)[0].column.table

Tip

The `FromClause.c` collection, synonymous with the `FromClause.columns` collection, is an instance of `ColumnCollection`, which provides a dictionary-like interface to the collection of columns. Names are ordinarily accessed like attribute names, e.g. `employees.c.employee_name`. However for special names with spaces or those that match the names of dictionary methods such as `ColumnCollection.keys()` or `ColumnCollection.values()`, indexed access must be used, such as `employees.c['values']` or `employees.c["some column"]`. See `ColumnCollection` for further information.

## Creating and Dropping Database Tables

Once you’ve defined some `Table` objects, assuming you’re working with a brand new database one thing you might want to do is issue CREATE statements for those tables and their related constructs (as an aside, it’s also quite possible that you don’t want to do this, if you already have some preferred methodology such as tools included with your database or an existing scripting system - if that’s the case, feel free to skip this section - SQLAlchemy has no requirement that it be used to create your tables).

The usual way to issue CREATE is to use `create_all()` on the `MetaData` object. This method will issue queries that first check for the existence of each individual table, and if not found will issue the CREATE statements:

    engine = create_engine("sqlite:///:memory:")

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    user = Table(
        "user",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("user_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("user_name", String(16), nullable=False),
        Column("email_address", String(60), key="email"),
        Column("nickname", String(50), nullable=False),
    )

    user_prefs = Table(
        "user_prefs",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("pref_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("user_id", Integer, ForeignKey("user.user_id"), nullable=False),
        Column("pref_name", String(40), nullable=False),
        Column("pref_value", String(100)),
    )

    sqlmetadata_obj.create_all(engine)
    PRAGMA table_info(user){}
    CREATE TABLE user(
            user_id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
            user_name VARCHAR(16) NOT NULL,
            email_address VARCHAR(60),
            nickname VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL
    )
    PRAGMA table_info(user_prefs){}
    CREATE TABLE user_prefs(
            pref_id INTEGER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
            user_id INTEGER NOT NULL REFERENCES user(user_id),
            pref_name VARCHAR(40) NOT NULL,
            pref_value VARCHAR(100)
    )

`create_all()` creates foreign key constraints between tables usually inline with the table definition itself, and for this reason it also generates the tables in order of their dependency. There are options to change this behavior such that `ALTER TABLE` is used instead.

Dropping all tables is similarly achieved using the `drop_all()` method. This method does the exact opposite of `create_all()` - the presence of each table is checked first, and tables are dropped in reverse order of dependency.

Creating and dropping individual tables can be done via the `create()` and `drop()` methods of `Table`. These methods by default issue the CREATE or DROP regardless of the table being present:

    engine = create_engine("sqlite:///:memory:")

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    employees = Table(
        "employees",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("employee_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("employee_name", String(60), nullable=False, key="name"),
        Column("employee_dept", Integer, ForeignKey("departments.department_id")),
    )
    sqlemployees.create(engine)
    CREATE TABLE employees(
    employee_id SERIAL NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,
    employee_name VARCHAR(60) NOT NULL,
    employee_dept INTEGER REFERENCES departments(department_id)
    )
    {}

`drop()` method:

    sqlemployees.drop(engine)
    DROP TABLE employees
    {}

To enable the “check first for the table existing” logic, add the `checkfirst=True` argument to `create()` or `drop()`:

    employees.create(engine, checkfirst=True)
    employees.drop(engine, checkfirst=False)

## Altering Database Objects through Migrations

While SQLAlchemy directly supports emitting CREATE and DROP statements for schema constructs, the ability to alter those constructs, usually via the ALTER statement as well as other database-specific constructs, is outside of the scope of SQLAlchemy itself. While it’s easy enough to emit ALTER statements and similar by hand, such as by passing a `text()` construct to `Connection.execute()` or by using the `DDL` construct, it’s a common practice to automate the maintenance of database schemas in relation to application code using schema migration tools.

The SQLAlchemy project offers the Alembic migration tool for this purpose. Alembic features a highly customizable environment and a minimalistic usage pattern, supporting such features as transactional DDL, automatic generation of “candidate” migrations, an “offline” mode which generates SQL scripts, and support for branch resolution.

Alembic supersedes the SQLAlchemy-Migrate project, which is the original migration tool for SQLAlchemy and is now considered legacy.

## Specifying the Schema Name

Most databases support the concept of multiple “schemas” - namespaces that refer to alternate sets of tables and other constructs. The server-side geometry of a “schema” takes many forms, including names of “schemas” under the scope of a particular database (e.g. PostgreSQL schemas), named sibling databases (e.g. MySQL / MariaDB access to other databases on the same server), as well as other concepts like tables owned by other usernames (Oracle, SQL Server) or even names that refer to alternate database files (SQLite ATTACH) or remote servers (Oracle DBLINK with synonyms).

What all of the above approaches have (mostly) in common is that there’s a way of referring to this alternate set of tables using a string name. SQLAlchemy refers to this name as the schema name. Within SQLAlchemy, this is nothing more than a string name which is associated with a `Table` object, and is then rendered into SQL statements in a manner appropriate to the target database such that the table is referred towards in its remote “schema”, whatever mechanism that is on the target database.

The “schema” name may be associated directly with a `Table` using the `Table.schema` argument; when using the ORM with declarative table configuration, the parameter is passed using the `__table_args__` parameter dictionary.

The “schema” name may also be associated with the `MetaData` object where it will take effect automatically for all `Table` objects associated with that `MetaData` that don’t otherwise specify their own name. Finally, SQLAlchemy also supports a “dynamic” schema name system that is often used for multi-tenant applications such that a single set of `Table` metadata may refer to a dynamically configured set of schema names on a per-connection or per-statement basis.

What’s “schema” ?

SQLAlchemy’s support for database “schema” was designed with first party support for PostgreSQL-style schemas. In this style, there is first a “database” that typically has a single “owner”. Within this database there can be any number of “schemas” which then contain the actual table objects.

A table within a specific schema is referred towards explicitly using the syntax “<schemaname>.<tablename>”. Constrast this to an architecture such as that of MySQL, where there are only “databases”, however SQL statements can refer to multiple databases at once, using the same syntax except it is “<database>.<tablename>”. On Oracle, this syntax refers to yet another concept, the “owner” of a table. Regardless of which kind of database is in use, SQLAlchemy uses the phrase “schema” to refer to the qualifying identifier within the general syntax of “<qualifier>.<tablename>”.

See also

Explicit Schema Name with Declarative Table - schema name specification when using the ORM declarative table configuration

The most basic example is that of the `Table.schema` argument using a Core `Table` object as follows:

    metadata_obj = MetaData()

    financial_info = Table(
        "financial_info",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("value", String(100), nullable=False),
        schema="remote_banks",
    )

SQL that is rendered using this `Table`, such as the SELECT statement below, will explicitly qualify the table name `financial_info` with the `remote_banks` schema name:

    >>> print(select(financial_info))
    SELECT remote_banks.financial_info.id, remote_banks.financial_info.value
    FROM remote_banks.financial_info

When a `Table` object is declared with an explicit schema name, it is stored in the internal `MetaData` namespace using the combination of the schema and table name. We can view this in the `MetaData.tables` collection by searching for the key `'remote_banks.financial_info'`:

    >>> metadata_obj.tables["remote_banks.financial_info"]
    Table('financial_info', MetaData(),
    Column('id', Integer(), table=<financial_info>, primary_key=True, nullable=False),
    Column('value', String(length=100), table=<financial_info>, nullable=False),
    schema='remote_banks')

This dotted name is also what must be used when referring to the table for use with the `ForeignKey` or `ForeignKeyConstraint` objects, even if the referring table is also in that same schema:

    customer = Table(
        "customer",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("financial_info_id", ForeignKey("remote_banks.financial_info.id")),
        schema="remote_banks",
    )

The `Table.schema` argument may also be used with certain dialects to indicate a multiple-token (e.g. dotted) path to a particular table. This is particularly important on a database such as Microsoft SQL Server where there are often dotted “database/owner” tokens. The tokens may be placed directly in the name at once, such as:

    schema = "dbo.scott"

See also

Multipart Schema Names - describes use of dotted schema names with the SQL Server dialect.

Reflecting Tables from Other Schemas

### Specifying a Default Schema Name with MetaData

The `MetaData` object may also set up an explicit default option for all `Table.schema` parameters by passing the `MetaData.schema` argument to the top level `MetaData` construct:

    metadata_obj = MetaData(schema="remote_banks")

    financial_info = Table(
        "financial_info",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("value", String(100), nullable=False),
    )

Above, for any `Table` object (or `Sequence` object directly associated with the `MetaData`) which leaves the `Table.schema` parameter at its default of `None` will instead act as though the parameter were set to the value `"remote_banks"`. This includes that the `Table` is cataloged in the `MetaData` using the schema-qualified name, that is:

    metadata_obj.tables["remote_banks.financial_info"]

When using the `ForeignKey` or `ForeignKeyConstraint` objects to refer to this table, either the schema-qualified name or the non-schema-qualified name may be used to refer to the `remote_banks.financial_info` table:

    # either will work:

    refers_to_financial_info = Table(
        "refers_to_financial_info",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("fiid", ForeignKey("financial_info.id")),
    )

    # or

    refers_to_financial_info = Table(
        "refers_to_financial_info",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("fiid", ForeignKey("remote_banks.financial_info.id")),
    )

When using a `MetaData` object that sets `MetaData.schema`, a `Table` that wishes to specify that it should not be schema qualified may use the special symbol `BLANK_SCHEMA`:

    from sqlalchemy import BLANK_SCHEMA

    metadata_obj = MetaData(schema="remote_banks")

    financial_info = Table(
        "financial_info",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("value", String(100), nullable=False),
        schema=BLANK_SCHEMA,  # will not use "remote_banks"
    )

See also

`MetaData.schema`

### Applying Dynamic Schema Naming Conventions

The names used by the `Table.schema` parameter may also be applied against a lookup that is dynamic on a per-connection or per-execution basis, so that for example in multi-tenant situations, each transaction or statement may be targeted at a specific set of schema names that change. The section Translation of Schema Names describes how this feature is used.

See also

Translation of Schema Names

### Setting a Default Schema for New Connections

The above approaches all refer to methods of including an explicit schema-name within SQL statements. Database connections in fact feature the concept of a “default” schema, which is the name of the “schema” (or database, owner, etc.) that takes place if a table name is not explicitly schema-qualified. These names are usually configured at the login level, such as when connecting to a PostgreSQL database, the default “schema” is called “public”.

There are often cases where the default “schema” cannot be set via the login itself and instead would usefully be configured each time a connection is made, using a statement such as “SET SEARCH_PATH” on PostgreSQL or “ALTER SESSION” on Oracle. These approaches may be achieved by using the `PoolEvents.connect()` event, which allows access to the DBAPI connection when it is first created. For example, to set the Oracle CURRENT_SCHEMA variable to an alternate name:

    from sqlalchemy import event
    from sqlalchemy import create_engine

    engine = create_engine("oracle+cx_oracle://scott:tiger@tsn_name")

    @event.listens_for(engine, "connect", insert=True)
    def set_current_schema(dbapi_connection, connection_record):
        cursor_obj = dbapi_connection.cursor()
        cursor_obj.execute("ALTER SESSION SET CURRENT_SCHEMA=%s" % schema_name)
        cursor_obj.close()

Above, the `set_current_schema()` event handler will take place immediately when the above `Engine` first connects; as the event is “inserted” into the beginning of the handler list, it will also take place before the dialect’s own event handlers are run, in particular including the one that will determine the “default schema” for the connection.

For other databases, consult the database and/or dialect documentation for specific information regarding how default schemas are configured.

Changed in version 1.4.0b2: The above recipe now works without the need to establish additional event handlers.

See also

Setting Alternate Search Paths on Connect - in the PostgreSQL dialect documentation.

### Schemas and Reflection

The schema feature of SQLAlchemy interacts with the table reflection feature introduced at Reflecting Database Objects. See the section Reflecting Tables from Other Schemas for additional details on how this works.

## Backend-Specific Options

`Table` supports database-specific options. For example, MySQL has different table backend types, including “MyISAM” and “InnoDB”. This can be expressed with `Table` using `mysql_engine`:

    addresses = Table(
        "engine_email_addresses",
        metadata_obj,
        Column("address_id", Integer, primary_key=True),
        Column("remote_user_id", Integer, ForeignKey(users.c.user_id)),
        Column("email_address", String(20)),
        mysql_engine="InnoDB",
    )

Other backends may support table-level options as well - these would be described in the individual documentation sections for each dialect.

## Column, Table, MetaData API

Object Name | Description
--- | ---
Column | Represents a column in a database table.
MetaData | A collection of `Table` objects and their associated schema constructs.
SchemaItem | Base class for items that define a database schema.
Table | Represent a table in a database.
ThreadLocalMetaData | A MetaData variant that presents a different `bind` in every thread.

attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.sqlalchemy.schema.`sqlalchemy.schema.BLANK_SCHEMA

  Symbol indicating that a `Table` or `Sequence` should have ‘None’ for its schema, even if the parent `MetaData` has specified a schema.

  See also

  `MetaData.schema`

  `Table.schema`

  `Sequence.schema`

  New in version 1.0.14.

attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.sqlalchemy.schema.`sqlalchemy.schema.RETAIN_SCHEMA

  Symbol indicating that a `Table`, `Sequence` or in some cases a `ForeignKey` object, in situations where the object is being copied for a `Table.to_metadata()` operation, should retain the schema name that it already has.

class sqlalchemy.schema.Column(*args, **kwargs)

  Represents a column in a database table.

  Members

  __eq__(), __init__(), __le__(), __lt__(), __ne__(), all_(), anon_key_label, anon_label, any_(), argument_for(), asc(), between(), bool_op(), cast(), collate(), compare(), compile(), concat(), contains(), copy(), desc(), dialect_kwargs, dialect_options, distinct(), endswith(), expression, foreign_keys, get_children(), ilike(), in_(), index, info, inherit_cache, is_(), is_distinct_from(), is_not(), is_not_distinct_from(), isnot(), isnot_distinct_from(), key, kwargs, label(), like(), match(), memoized_instancemethod(), not_ilike(), not_in(), not_like(), notilike(), notin_(), notlike(), nulls_first(), nulls_last(), nullsfirst(), nullslast(), op(), operate(), params(), references(), regexp_match(), regexp_replace(), reverse_operate(), self_group(), shares_lineage(), startswith(), timetuple, unique, unique_params()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.schema.Column` (`sqlalchemy.sql.base.DialectKWArgs`, `sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem`, `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.ColumnClause`)

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`__eq__(other)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.ColumnOperators.__eq__` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `==` operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `a = b`. If the target is `None`, produces `a IS NULL`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`__init__(*args, **kwargs)

    Construct a new `Column` object.

    Parameters:

      - name –

        The name of this column as represented in the database. This argument may be the first positional argument, or specified via keyword.

        Names which contain no upper case characters will be treated as case insensitive names, and will not be quoted unless they are a reserved word. Names with any number of upper case characters will be quoted and sent exactly. Note that this behavior applies even for databases which standardize upper case names as case insensitive such as Oracle.

        The name field may be omitted at construction time and applied later, at any time before the Column is associated with a `Table`. This is to support convenient usage within the `declarative` extension.

      - type_ –

        The column’s type, indicated using an instance which subclasses `TypeEngine`. If no arguments are required for the type, the class of the type can be sent as well, e.g.:

            # use a type with arguments
            Column('data', String(50))

            # use no arguments
            Column('level', Integer)

        The `type` argument may be the second positional argument or specified by keyword.

        If the `type` is `None` or is omitted, it will first default to the special type `NullType`. If and when this `Column` is made to refer to another column using `ForeignKey` and/or `ForeignKeyConstraint`, the type of the remote-referenced column will be copied to this column as well, at the moment that the foreign key is resolved against that remote `Column` object.

        Changed in version 0.9.0: Support for propagation of type to a `Column` from its `ForeignKey` object has been improved and should be more reliable and timely.

      - *args – Additional positional arguments include various `SchemaItem` derived constructs which will be applied as options to the column. These include instances of `Constraint`, `ForeignKey`, `ColumnDefault`, `Sequence`, `Computed` `Identity`. In some cases an equivalent keyword argument is available such as `server_default`, `default` and `unique`.

      - autoincrement –

        Set up “auto increment” semantics for an integer primary key column with no foreign key dependencies (see later in this docstring for a more specific definition). This may influence the DDL that will be emitted for this column during a table create, as well as how the column will be considered when INSERT statements are compiled and executed.

        The default value is the string `"auto"`, which indicates that a single-column (i.e. non-composite) primary key that is of an INTEGER type with no other client-side or server-side default constructs indicated should receive auto increment semantics automatically. Other values include `True` (force this column to have auto-increment semantics for a composite primary key as well), `False` (this column should never have auto-increment semantics), and the string `"ignore_fk"` (special-case for foreign key columns, see below).

        The term “auto increment semantics” refers both to the kind of DDL that will be emitted for the column within a CREATE TABLE statement, when methods such as `MetaData.create_all()` and `Table.create()` are invoked, as well as how the column will be considered when an INSERT statement is compiled and emitted to the database:

        - DDL rendering (i.e. `MetaData.create_all()`, `Table.create()`): When used on a `Column` that has no other default-generating construct associated with it (such as a `Sequence` or `Identity` construct), the parameter will imply that database-specific keywords such as PostgreSQL `SERIAL`, MySQL `AUTO_INCREMENT`, or `IDENTITY` on SQL Server should also be rendered. Not every database backend has an “implied” default generator available; for example the Oracle backend always needs an explicit construct such as `Identity` to be included with a `Column` in order for the DDL rendered to include auto-generating constructs to also be produced in the database.

        - INSERT semantics (i.e. when a `insert()` construct is compiled into a SQL string and is then executed on a database using `Connection.execute()` or equivalent): A single-row INSERT statement will be known to produce a new integer primary key value automatically for this column, which will be accessible after the statement is invoked via the `CursorResult.inserted_primary_key` attribute upon the `Result` object. This also applies towards use of the ORM when ORM-mapped objects are persisted to the database, indicating that a new integer primary key will be available to become part of the identity key for that object. This behavior takes place regardless of what DDL constructs are associated with the `Column` and is independent of the “DDL Rendering” behavior discussed in the previous note above.

        The parameter may be set to `True` to indicate that a column which is part of a composite (i.e. multi-column) primary key should have autoincrement semantics, though note that only one column within a primary key may have this setting. It can also be set to `True` to indicate autoincrement semantics on a column that has a client-side or server-side default configured, however note that not all dialects can accommodate all styles of default as an “autoincrement”. It can also be set to `False` on a single-column primary key that has a datatype of INTEGER in order to disable auto increment semantics for that column.

        Changed in version 1.1: The autoincrement flag now defaults to `"auto"` which indicates autoincrement semantics by default for single-column integer primary keys only; for composite (multi-column) primary keys, autoincrement is never implicitly enabled; as always, `autoincrement=True` will allow for at most one of those columns to be an “autoincrement” column. `autoincrement=True` may also be set on a `Column` that has an explicit client-side or server-side default, subject to limitations of the backend database and dialect.

        The setting only has an effect for columns which are:

        - Integer derived (i.e. INT, SMALLINT, BIGINT).

        - Part of the primary key

        - Not referring to another column via `ForeignKey`, unless the value is specified as `'ignore_fk'`:

              # turn on autoincrement for this column despite
              # the ForeignKey()
              Column('id', ForeignKey('other.id'),
                          primary_key=True, autoincrement='ignore_fk')

        It is typically not desirable to have “autoincrement” enabled on a column that refers to another via foreign key, as such a column is required to refer to a value that originates from elsewhere.

        The setting has these effects on columns that meet the above criteria:

        - DDL issued for the column, if the column does not already include a default generating construct supported by the backend such as `Identity`, will include database-specific keywords intended to signify this column as an “autoincrement” column for specific backends. Behavior for primary SQLAlchemy dialects includes:

          - AUTO INCREMENT on MySQL and MariaDB

          - SERIAL on PostgreSQL

          - IDENTITY on MS-SQL - this occurs even without the `Identity` construct as the `Column.autoincrement` parameter pre-dates this construct.

          - SQLite - SQLite integer primary key columns are implicitly “auto incrementing” and no additional keywords are rendered; to render the special SQLite keyword `AUTOINCREMENT` is not included as this is unnecessary and not recommended by the database vendor. See the section SQLite Auto Incrementing Behavior for more background.

          - Oracle - The Oracle dialect has no default “autoincrement” feature available at this time, instead the `Identity` construct is recommended to achieve this (the `Sequence` construct may also be used).

          - Third-party dialects - consult those dialects’ documentation for details on their specific behaviors.

        - When a single-row `insert()` construct is compiled and executed, which does not set the `Insert.inline()` modifier, newly generated primary key values for this column will be automatically retrieved upon statement execution using a method specific to the database driver in use:

          - MySQL, SQLite - calling upon `cursor.lastrowid()` (see https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0249/#lastrowid)

          - PostgreSQL, SQL Server, Oracle - use RETURNING or an equivalent construct when rendering an INSERT statement, and then retrieving the newly generated primary key values after execution

          - PostgreSQL, Oracle for `Table` objects that set `Table.implicit_returning` to False - for a `Sequence` only, the `Sequence` is invoked explicitly before the INSERT statement takes place so that the newly generated primary key value is available to the client

          - SQL Server for `Table` objects that set `Table.implicit_returning` to False - the `SELECT scope_identity()` construct is used after the INSERT statement is invoked to retrieve the newly generated primary key value.

          - Third-party dialects - consult those dialects’ documentation for details on their specific behaviors.

        - For multiple-row `insert()` constructs invoked with a list of parameters (i.e. “executemany” semantics), primary-key retrieving behaviors are generally disabled, however there may be special APIs that may be used to retrieve lists of new primary key values for an “executemany”, such as the psycopg2 “fast insertmany” feature. Such features are very new and may not yet be well covered in documentation.

      - default –

        A scalar, Python callable, or `ColumnElement` expression representing the default value for this column, which will be invoked upon insert if this column is otherwise not specified in the VALUES clause of the insert. This is a shortcut to using `ColumnDefault` as a positional argument; see that class for full detail on the structure of the argument.

        Contrast this argument to `Column.server_default` which creates a default generator on the database side.

        See also

        Column INSERT/UPDATE Defaults

      - doc – optional String that can be used by the ORM or similar to document attributes on the Python side. This attribute does not render SQL comments; use the `Column.comment` parameter for this purpose.

      - key – An optional string identifier which will identify this `Column` object on the `Table`. When a key is provided, this is the only identifier referencing the `Column` within the application, including ORM attribute mapping; the `name` field is used only when rendering SQL.

      - index –

        When `True`, indicates that a `Index` construct will be automatically generated for this `Column`, which will result in a “CREATE INDEX” statement being emitted for the `Table` when the DDL create operation is invoked.

        Using this flag is equivalent to making use of the `Index` construct explicitly at the level of the `Table` construct itself:

            Table(
                "some_table",
                metadata,
                Column("x", Integer),
                Index("ix_some_table_x", "x")
            )

        To add the `Index.unique` flag to the `Index`, set both the `Column.unique` and `Column.index` flags to True simultaneously, which will have the effect of rendering the “CREATE UNIQUE INDEX” DDL instruction instead of “CREATE INDEX”.

        The name of the index is generated using the default naming convention which for the `Index` construct is of the form `ix_<tablename>_<columnname>`.

        As this flag is intended only as a convenience for the common case of adding a single-column, default configured index to a table definition, explicit use of the `Index` construct should be preferred for most use cases, including composite indexes that encompass more than one column, indexes with SQL expressions or ordering, backend-specific index configuration options, and indexes that use a specific name.

        Note

        the `Column.index` attribute on `Column` does not indicate if this column is indexed or not, only if this flag was explicitly set here. To view indexes on a column, view the `Table.indexes` collection or use `Inspector.get_indexes()`.

        See also

        Indexes

        Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions

        `Column.unique`

      - info – Optional data dictionary which will be populated into the `SchemaItem.info` attribute of this object.

      - nullable –

        When set to `False`, will cause the “NOT NULL” phrase to be added when generating DDL for the column. When `True`, will normally generate nothing (in SQL this defaults to “NULL”), except in some very specific backend-specific edge cases where “NULL” may render explicitly. Defaults to `True` unless `Column.primary_key` is also `True` or the column specifies a `Identity`, in which case it defaults to `False`. This parameter is only used when issuing CREATE TABLE statements.

        Note

        When the column specifies a `Identity` this parameter is in general ignored by the DDL compiler. The PostgreSQL database allows nullable identity column by setting this parameter to `True` explicitly.

      - onupdate –

        A scalar, Python callable, or `ClauseElement` representing a default value to be applied to the column within UPDATE statements, which will be invoked upon update if this column is not present in the SET clause of the update. This is a shortcut to using `ColumnDefault` as a positional argument with `for_update=True`.

        See also

        Column INSERT/UPDATE Defaults - complete discussion of onupdate

      - primary_key – If `True`, marks this column as a primary key column. Multiple columns can have this flag set to specify composite primary keys. As an alternative, the primary key of a `Table` can be specified via an explicit `PrimaryKeyConstraint` object.

      - server_default –

        A `FetchedValue` instance, str, Unicode or `text()` construct representing the DDL DEFAULT value for the column.

        String types will be emitted as-is, surrounded by single quotes:

            Column('x', Text, server_default="val")

            x TEXT DEFAULT 'val'

        A `text()` expression will be rendered as-is, without quotes:

            Column('y', DateTime, server_default=text('NOW()'))

            y DATETIME DEFAULT NOW()

        Strings and text() will be converted into a `DefaultClause` object upon initialization.

        This parameter can also accept complex combinations of contextually valid SQLAlchemy expressions or constructs:

            from sqlalchemy import create_engine
            from sqlalchemy import Table, Column, MetaData, ARRAY, Text
            from sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql import array

            engine = create_engine(
                'postgresql://scott:tiger@localhost/mydatabase'
            )
            metadata_obj = MetaData()
            tbl = Table(
                    "foo",
                    metadata_obj,
                    Column("bar",
                           ARRAY(Text),
                           server_default=array(["biz", "bang", "bash"])
                           )
            )
            metadata_obj.create_all(engine)

        The above results in a table created with the following SQL:

            CREATE TABLE foo (
                bar TEXT[] DEFAULT ARRAY['biz', 'bang', 'bash']
            )

        Use `FetchedValue` to indicate that an already-existing column will generate a default value on the database side which will be available to SQLAlchemy for post-fetch after inserts. This construct does not specify any DDL and the implementation is left to the database, such as via a trigger.

        See also

        Server-invoked DDL-Explicit Default Expressions - complete discussion of server side defaults

      - server_onupdate –

        A `FetchedValue` instance representing a database-side default generation function, such as a trigger. This indicates to SQLAlchemy that a newly generated value will be available after updates. This construct does not actually implement any kind of generation function within the database, which instead must be specified separately.

        Warning

        This directive does not currently produce MySQL’s “ON UPDATE CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()” clause. See Rendering ON UPDATE CURRENT TIMESTAMP for MySQL / MariaDB’s explicit_defaults_for_timestamp for background on how to produce this clause.

        See also

        Marking Implicitly Generated Values, timestamps, and Triggered Columns

      - quote – Force quoting of this column’s name on or off, corresponding to `True` or `False`. When left at its default of `None`, the column identifier will be quoted according to whether the name is case sensitive (identifiers with at least one upper case character are treated as case sensitive), or if it’s a reserved word. This flag is only needed to force quoting of a reserved word which is not known by the SQLAlchemy dialect.

      - unique –

        When `True`, and the `Column.index` parameter is left at its default value of `False`, indicates that a `UniqueConstraint` construct will be automatically generated for this `Column`, which will result in a “UNIQUE CONSTRAINT” clause referring to this column being included in the `CREATE TABLE` statement emitted, when the DDL create operation for the `Table` object is invoked.

        When this flag is `True` while the `Column.index` parameter is simultaneously set to `True`, the effect instead is that a `Index` construct which includes the `Index.unique` parameter set to `True` is generated. See the documentation for `Column.index` for additional detail.

        Using this flag is equivalent to making use of the `UniqueConstraint` construct explicitly at the level of the `Table` construct itself:

            Table(
                "some_table",
                metadata,
                Column("x", Integer),
                UniqueConstraint("x")
            )

        The `UniqueConstraint.name` parameter of the unique constraint object is left at its default value of `None`; in the absence of a naming convention for the enclosing `MetaData`, the UNIQUE CONSTRAINT construct will be emitted as unnamed, which typically invokes a database-specific naming convention to take place.

        As this flag is intended only as a convenience for the common case of adding a single-column, default configured unique constraint to a table definition, explicit use of the `UniqueConstraint` construct should be preferred for most use cases, including composite constraints that encompass more than one column, backend-specific index configuration options, and constraints that use a specific name.

        Note

        the `Column.unique` attribute on `Column` does not indicate if this column has a unique constraint or not, only if this flag was explicitly set here. To view indexes and unique constraints that may involve this column, view the `Table.indexes` and/or `Table.constraints` collections or use `Inspector.get_indexes()` and/or `Inspector.get_unique_constraints()`

        See also

        UNIQUE Constraint

        Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions

        `Column.index`

      - system –

        When `True`, indicates this is a “system” column, that is a column which is automatically made available by the database, and should not be included in the columns list for a `CREATE TABLE` statement.

        For more elaborate scenarios where columns should be conditionally rendered differently on different backends, consider custom compilation rules for `CreateColumn`.

      - comment –

        Optional string that will render an SQL comment on table creation.

        New in version 1.2: Added the `Column.comment` parameter to `Column`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`__le__(other)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.ColumnOperators.__le__` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `<=` operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `a <= b`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`__lt__(other)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.ColumnOperators.__lt__` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `<` operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `a < b`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`__ne__(other)

    inherited from the `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.ColumnOperators.__ne__` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `!=` operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `a != b`. If the target is `None`, produces `a IS NOT NULL`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`all_()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.all_()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce an `all_()` clause against the parent object.

    See the documentation for `all_()` for examples.

    Note

    be sure to not confuse the newer `ColumnOperators.all_()` method with its older `ARRAY`-specific counterpart, the `Comparator.all()` method, which a different calling syntax and usage pattern.

    New in version 1.1.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`anon_key_label

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.anon_key_label` attribute of `ColumnElement`

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The `ColumnElement.anon_key_label` attribute is now private, and the public accessor is deprecated.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`anon_label

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.anon_label` attribute of `ColumnElement`

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The `ColumnElement.anon_label` attribute is now private, and the public accessor is deprecated.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`any_()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.any_()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce an `any_()` clause against the parent object.

    See the documentation for `any_()` for examples.

    Note

    be sure to not confuse the newer `ColumnOperators.any_()` method with its older `ARRAY`-specific counterpart, the `Comparator.any()` method, which a different calling syntax and usage pattern.

    New in version 1.1.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`argument_for(dialect_name, argument_name, default)

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.argument_for()` method of `DialectKWArgs`

    Add a new kind of dialect-specific keyword argument for this class.

    E.g.:

        Index.argument_for("mydialect", "length", None)

        some_index = Index('a', 'b', mydialect_length=5)

    The `DialectKWArgs.argument_for()` method is a per-argument way adding extra arguments to the `DefaultDialect.construct_arguments` dictionary. This dictionary provides a list of argument names accepted by various schema-level constructs on behalf of a dialect.

    New dialects should typically specify this dictionary all at once as a data member of the dialect class. The use case for ad-hoc addition of argument names is typically for end-user code that is also using a custom compilation scheme which consumes the additional arguments.

    Parameters:

      - dialect_name – name of a dialect. The dialect must be locatable, else a `NoSuchModuleError` is raised. The dialect must also include an existing `DefaultDialect.construct_arguments` collection, indicating that it participates in the keyword-argument validation and default system, else `ArgumentError` is raised. If the dialect does not include this collection, then any keyword argument can be specified on behalf of this dialect already. All dialects packaged within SQLAlchemy include this collection, however for third party dialects, support may vary.

      - argument_name – name of the parameter.

      - default – default value of the parameter.

    New in version 0.9.4.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`asc()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.asc()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `asc()` clause against the parent object.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`between(cleft, cright, symmetric=False)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.between()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `between()` clause against the parent object, given the lower and upper range.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`bool_op(opstring, precedence=0)

    inherited from the `Operators.bool_op()` method of `Operators`

    Return a custom boolean operator.

    This method is shorthand for calling `Operators.op()` and passing the `Operators.op.is_comparison` flag with True. A key advantage to using `Operators.bool_op()` is that when using column constructs, the “boolean” nature of the returned expression will be present for PEP 484 purposes.

    See also

    `Operators.op()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`cast(type_)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.cast()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Produce a type cast, i.e. `CAST(<expression> AS <type>)`.

    This is a shortcut to the `cast()` function.

    See also

    Data Casts and Type Coercion

    `cast()`

    `type_coerce()`

    New in version 1.0.7.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`collate(collation)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.collate()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `collate()` clause against the parent object, given the collation string.

    See also

    `collate()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`compare(other, **kw)

    inherited from the `ClauseElement.compare()` method of `ClauseElement`

    Compare this `ClauseElement` to the given `ClauseElement`.

    Subclasses should override the default behavior, which is a straight identity comparison.

    **kw are arguments consumed by subclass `compare()` methods and may be used to modify the criteria for comparison (see `ColumnElement`).

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`compile(bind=None, dialect=None, **kw)

    inherited from the `ClauseElement.compile()` method of `ClauseElement`

    Compile this SQL expression.

    The return value is a `Compiled` object. Calling `str()` or `unicode()` on the returned value will yield a string representation of the result. The `Compiled` object also can return a dictionary of bind parameter names and values using the `params` accessor.

    Parameters:

      - bind – An `Engine` or `Connection` from which a `Compiled` will be acquired. This argument takes precedence over this `ClauseElement`’s bound engine, if any.

      - column_keys – Used for INSERT and UPDATE statements, a list of column names which should be present in the VALUES clause of the compiled statement. If `None`, all columns from the target table object are rendered.

      - dialect – A `Dialect` instance from which a `Compiled` will be acquired. This argument takes precedence over the bind argument as well as this `ClauseElement` ‘s bound engine, if any.

      - compile_kwargs –

        optional dictionary of additional parameters that will be passed through to the compiler within all “visit” methods. This allows any custom flag to be passed through to a custom compilation construct, for example. It is also used for the case of passing the `literal_binds` flag through:

            from sqlalchemy.sql import table, column, select

            t = table('t', column('x'))

            s = select(t).where(t.c.x == 5)

            print(s.compile(compile_kwargs={"literal_binds": True}))

        New in version 0.9.0.

    See also

    How do I render SQL expressions as strings, possibly with bound parameters inlined?

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`concat(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.concat()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the ‘concat’ operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `a || b`, or uses the `concat()` operator on MySQL.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`contains(other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.contains()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the ‘contains’ operator.

    Produces a LIKE expression that tests against a match for the middle of a string value:

        column LIKE '%' || <other> || '%'

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(sometable).\
            where(sometable.c.column.contains("foobar"))

    Since the operator uses `LIKE`, wildcard characters `"%"` and `"_"` that are present inside the <other> expression will behave like wildcards as well. For literal string values, the `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape` flag may be set to `True` to apply escaping to occurrences of these characters within the string value so that they match as themselves and not as wildcard characters. Alternatively, the `ColumnOperators.contains.escape` parameter will establish a given character as an escape character which can be of use when the target expression is not a literal string.

    Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared. This is usually a plain string value, but can also be an arbitrary SQL expression. LIKE wildcard characters `%` and `_` are not escaped by default unless the `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape` flag is set to True.

      - autoescape –

        boolean; when True, establishes an escape character within the LIKE expression, then applies it to all occurrences of `"%"`, `"_"` and the escape character itself within the comparison value, which is assumed to be a literal string and not a SQL expression.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.contains("foo%bar", autoescape=True)

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param || '%' ESCAPE '/'

        With the value of `:param` as `"foo/%bar"`.

      - escape –

        a character which when given will render with the `ESCAPE` keyword to establish that character as the escape character. This character can then be placed preceding occurrences of `%` and `_` to allow them to act as themselves and not wildcard characters.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.contains("foo/%bar", escape="^")

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param || '%' ESCAPE '^'

        The parameter may also be combined with `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape`:

            somecolumn.contains("foo%bar^bat", escape="^", autoescape=True)

        Where above, the given literal parameter will be converted to `"foo^%bar^^bat"` before being passed to the database.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.startswith()`

    `ColumnOperators.endswith()`

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`copy(**kw)

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The `Column.copy()` method is deprecated and will be removed in a future release.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`desc()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.desc()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `desc()` clause against the parent object.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`dialect_kwargs

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A collection of keyword arguments specified as dialect-specific options to this construct.

    The arguments are present here in their original `<dialect>_<kwarg>` format. Only arguments that were actually passed are included; unlike the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` collection, which contains all options known by this dialect including defaults.

    The collection is also writable; keys are accepted of the form `<dialect>_<kwarg>` where the value will be assembled into the list of options.

    New in version 0.9.2.

    Changed in version 0.9.4: The `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` collection is now writable.

    See also

    `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` - nested dictionary form

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`dialect_options

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A collection of keyword arguments specified as dialect-specific options to this construct.

    This is a two-level nested registry, keyed to `<dialect_name>` and `<argument_name>`. For example, the `postgresql_where` argument would be locatable as:

        arg = my_object.dialect_options['postgresql']['where']

    New in version 0.9.2.

    See also

    `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` - flat dictionary form

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`distinct()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.distinct()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `distinct()` clause against the parent object.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`endswith(other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.endswith()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the ‘endswith’ operator.

    Produces a LIKE expression that tests against a match for the end of a string value:

        column LIKE '%' || <other>

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(sometable).\
            where(sometable.c.column.endswith("foobar"))

    Since the operator uses `LIKE`, wildcard characters `"%"` and `"_"` that are present inside the <other> expression will behave like wildcards as well. For literal string values, the `ColumnOperators.endswith.autoescape` flag may be set to `True` to apply escaping to occurrences of these characters within the string value so that they match as themselves and not as wildcard characters. Alternatively, the `ColumnOperators.endswith.escape` parameter will establish a given character as an escape character which can be of use when the target expression is not a literal string.

    Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared. This is usually a plain string value, but can also be an arbitrary SQL expression. LIKE wildcard characters `%` and `_` are not escaped by default unless the `ColumnOperators.endswith.autoescape` flag is set to True.

      - autoescape –

        boolean; when True, establishes an escape character within the LIKE expression, then applies it to all occurrences of `"%"`, `"_"` and the escape character itself within the comparison value, which is assumed to be a literal string and not a SQL expression.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.endswith("foo%bar", autoescape=True)

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param ESCAPE '/'

        With the value of `:param` as `"foo/%bar"`.

      - escape –

        a character which when given will render with the `ESCAPE` keyword to establish that character as the escape character. This character can then be placed preceding occurrences of `%` and `_` to allow them to act as themselves and not wildcard characters.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.endswith("foo/%bar", escape="^")

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param ESCAPE '^'

        The parameter may also be combined with `ColumnOperators.endswith.autoescape`:

            somecolumn.endswith("foo%bar^bat", escape="^", autoescape=True)

        Where above, the given literal parameter will be converted to `"foo^%bar^^bat"` before being passed to the database.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.startswith()`

    `ColumnOperators.contains()`

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`expression

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.expression` attribute of `ColumnElement`

    Return a column expression.

    Part of the inspection interface; returns self.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`foreign_keys = None

    A collection of all `ForeignKey` marker objects associated with this `Column`.

    Each object is a member of a `Table`-wide `ForeignKeyConstraint`.

    See also

    `Table.foreign_keys`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`get_children(column_tables=False, **kw)

    inherited from the `ColumnClause.get_children()` method of `ColumnClause`

    Return immediate child `Traversible` elements of this `Traversible`.

    This is used for visit traversal.

    **kw may contain flags that change the collection that is returned, for example to return a subset of items in order to cut down on larger traversals, or to return child items from a different context (such as schema-level collections instead of clause-level).

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`ilike(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.ilike()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `ilike` operator, e.g. case insensitive LIKE.

    In a column context, produces an expression either of the form:

        lower(a) LIKE lower(other)

    Or on backends that support the ILIKE operator:

        a ILIKE other

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(sometable).\
            where(sometable.c.column.ilike("%foobar%"))

    Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared

      - escape –

        optional escape character, renders the `ESCAPE` keyword, e.g.:

            somecolumn.ilike("foo/%bar", escape="/")

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`in_(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.in_()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `in` operator.

    In a column context, produces the clause `column IN <other>`.

    The given parameter `other` may be:

    - A list of literal values, e.g.:

          stmt.where(column.in_([1, 2, 3]))

      In this calling form, the list of items is converted to a set of bound parameters the same length as the list given:

          WHERE COL IN (?, ?, ?)

    - A list of tuples may be provided if the comparison is against a `tuple_()` containing multiple expressions:

          from sqlalchemy import tuple_
          stmt.where(tuple_(col1, col2).in_([(1, 10), (2, 20), (3, 30)]))

    - An empty list, e.g.:

          stmt.where(column.in_([]))

      In this calling form, the expression renders an “empty set” expression. These expressions are tailored to individual backends and are generally trying to get an empty SELECT statement as a subquery. Such as on SQLite, the expression is:

          WHERE col IN (SELECT 1 FROM (SELECT 1) WHERE 1!=1)

      Changed in version 1.4: empty IN expressions now use an execution-time generated SELECT subquery in all cases.

    - A bound parameter, e.g. `bindparam()`, may be used if it includes the `bindparam.expanding` flag:

          stmt.where(column.in_(bindparam('value', expanding=True)))

      In this calling form, the expression renders a special non-SQL placeholder expression that looks like:

          WHERE COL IN ([EXPANDING_value])

      This placeholder expression is intercepted at statement execution time to be converted into the variable number of bound parameter form illustrated earlier. If the statement were executed as:

          connection.execute(stmt, {"value": [1, 2, 3]})

      The database would be passed a bound parameter for each value:

          WHERE COL IN (?, ?, ?)

      New in version 1.2: added “expanding” bound parameters

      If an empty list is passed, a special “empty list” expression, which is specific to the database in use, is rendered. On SQLite this would be:

          WHERE COL IN (SELECT 1 FROM (SELECT 1) WHERE 1!=1)

      New in version 1.3: “expanding” bound parameters now support empty lists

    - a `select()` construct, which is usually a correlated scalar select:

          stmt.where(
              column.in_(
                  select(othertable.c.y).
                  where(table.c.x == othertable.c.x)
              )
          )

      In this calling form, `ColumnOperators.in_()` renders as given:

          WHERE COL IN (SELECT othertable.y
          FROM othertable WHERE othertable.x = table.x)

    Parameters:

      other – a list of literals, a `select()` construct, or a `bindparam()` construct that includes the `bindparam.expanding` flag set to True.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`index = None

    The value of the `Column.index` parameter.

    Does not indicate if this `Column` is actually indexed or not; use `Table.indexes`.

    See also

    `Table.indexes`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`info

    inherited from the `SchemaItem.info` attribute of `SchemaItem`

    Info dictionary associated with the object, allowing user-defined data to be associated with this `SchemaItem`.

    The dictionary is automatically generated when first accessed. It can also be specified in the constructor of some objects, such as `Table` and `Column`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`inherit_cache = True

    Indicate if this `HasCacheKey` instance should make use of the cache key generation scheme used by its immediate superclass.

    The attribute defaults to `None`, which indicates that a construct has not yet taken into account whether or not its appropriate for it to participate in caching; this is functionally equivalent to setting the value to `False`, except that a warning is also emitted.

    This flag can be set to `True` on a particular class, if the SQL that corresponds to the object does not change based on attributes which are local to this class, and not its superclass.

    See also

    Enabling Caching Support for Custom Constructs - General guideslines for setting the `HasCacheKey.inherit_cache` attribute for third-party or user defined SQL constructs.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`is_(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.is_()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS` operator.

    Normally, `IS` is generated automatically when comparing to a value of `None`, which resolves to `NULL`. However, explicit usage of `IS` may be desirable if comparing to boolean values on certain platforms.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.is_not()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`is_distinct_from(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.is_distinct_from()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS DISTINCT FROM` operator.

    Renders “a IS DISTINCT FROM b” on most platforms; on some such as SQLite may render “a IS NOT b”.

    New in version 1.1.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`is_not(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.is_not()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS NOT` operator.

    Normally, `IS NOT` is generated automatically when comparing to a value of `None`, which resolves to `NULL`. However, explicit usage of `IS NOT` may be desirable if comparing to boolean values on certain platforms.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `is_not()` operator is renamed from `isnot()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.is_()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`is_not_distinct_from(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.is_not_distinct_from()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS NOT DISTINCT FROM` operator.

    Renders “a IS NOT DISTINCT FROM b” on most platforms; on some such as SQLite may render “a IS b”.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `is_not_distinct_from()` operator is renamed from `isnot_distinct_from()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    New in version 1.1.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`isnot(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.isnot()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS NOT` operator.

    Normally, `IS NOT` is generated automatically when comparing to a value of `None`, which resolves to `NULL`. However, explicit usage of `IS NOT` may be desirable if comparing to boolean values on certain platforms.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `is_not()` operator is renamed from `isnot()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.is_()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`isnot_distinct_from(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.isnot_distinct_from()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `IS NOT DISTINCT FROM` operator.

    Renders “a IS NOT DISTINCT FROM b” on most platforms; on some such as SQLite may render “a IS b”.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `is_not_distinct_from()` operator is renamed from `isnot_distinct_from()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    New in version 1.1.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`key = None

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.key` attribute of `ColumnElement`

    The ‘key’ that in some circumstances refers to this object in a Python namespace.

    This typically refers to the “key” of the column as present in the `.c` collection of a selectable, e.g. `sometable.c["somekey"]` would return a `Column` with a `.key` of “somekey”.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`kwargs

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.kwargs` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A synonym for `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`label(name)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.label()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Produce a column label, i.e. `<columnname> AS <name>`.

    This is a shortcut to the `label()` function.

    If ‘name’ is `None`, an anonymous label name will be generated.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`like(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.like()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `like` operator.

    In a column context, produces the expression:

        a LIKE other

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(sometable).\
            where(sometable.c.column.like("%foobar%"))

    Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared

      - escape –

        optional escape character, renders the `ESCAPE` keyword, e.g.:

            somecolumn.like("foo/%bar", escape="/")

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.ilike()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`match(other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.match()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implements a database-specific ‘match’ operator.

    `ColumnOperators.match()` attempts to resolve to a MATCH-like function or operator provided by the backend. Examples include:

    - PostgreSQL - renders `x @@ to_tsquery(y)`

    - MySQL - renders `MATCH (x) AGAINST (y IN BOOLEAN MODE)`

      See also

      `match` - MySQL specific construct with additional features.

    - Oracle - renders `CONTAINS(x, y)`

    - other backends may provide special implementations.

    - Backends without any special implementation will emit the operator as “MATCH”. This is compatible with SQLite, for example.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`memoized_instancemethod(fn)

    inherited from the `HasMemoized.memoized_instancemethod()` method of `HasMemoized`

    Decorate a method memoize its return value.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`not_ilike(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.not_ilike()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT ILIKE` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.ilike()`, i.e. `~x.ilike(y)`.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_ilike()` operator is renamed from `notilike()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.ilike()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`not_in(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.not_in()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT IN` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.in_()`, i.e. `~x.in_(y)`.

    In the case that `other` is an empty sequence, the compiler produces an “empty not in” expression. This defaults to the expression “1 = 1” to produce true in all cases. The `create_engine.empty_in_strategy` may be used to alter this behavior.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_in()` operator is renamed from `notin_()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    Changed in version 1.2: The `ColumnOperators.in_()` and `ColumnOperators.not_in()` operators now produce a “static” expression for an empty IN sequence by default.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.in_()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`not_like(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.not_like()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT LIKE` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.like()`, i.e. `~x.like(y)`.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_like()` operator is renamed from `notlike()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`notilike(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.notilike()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT ILIKE` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.ilike()`, i.e. `~x.ilike(y)`.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_ilike()` operator is renamed from `notilike()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.ilike()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`notin_(other)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.notin_()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT IN` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.in_()`, i.e. `~x.in_(y)`.

    In the case that `other` is an empty sequence, the compiler produces an “empty not in” expression. This defaults to the expression “1 = 1” to produce true in all cases. The `create_engine.empty_in_strategy` may be used to alter this behavior.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_in()` operator is renamed from `notin_()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    Changed in version 1.2: The `ColumnOperators.in_()` and `ColumnOperators.not_in()` operators now produce a “static” expression for an empty IN sequence by default.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.in_()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`notlike(other, escape=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.notlike()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    implement the `NOT LIKE` operator.

    This is equivalent to using negation with `ColumnOperators.like()`, i.e. `~x.like(y)`.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `not_like()` operator is renamed from `notlike()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`nulls_first()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.nulls_first()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `nulls_first()` clause against the parent object.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `nulls_first()` operator is renamed from `nullsfirst()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`nulls_last()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.nulls_last()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `nulls_last()` clause against the parent object.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `nulls_last()` operator is renamed from `nullslast()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`nullsfirst()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.nullsfirst()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `nulls_first()` clause against the parent object.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `nulls_first()` operator is renamed from `nullsfirst()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`nullslast()

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.nullslast()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Produce a `nulls_last()` clause against the parent object.

    Changed in version 1.4: The `nulls_last()` operator is renamed from `nullslast()` in previous releases. The previous name remains available for backwards compatibility.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`op(opstring, precedence=0, is_comparison=False, return_type=None)

    inherited from the `Operators.op()` method of `Operators`

    Produce a generic operator function.

    e.g.:

        somecolumn.op("*")(5)

    produces:

        somecolumn * 5

    This function can also be used to make bitwise operators explicit. For example:

        somecolumn.op('&')(0xff)

    is a bitwise AND of the value in `somecolumn`.

    Parameters:

      - operator – a string which will be output as the infix operator between this element and the expression passed to the generated function.

      - precedence –

        precedence which the database is expected to apply to the operator in SQL expressions. This integer value acts as a hint for the SQL compiler to know when explicit parenthesis should be rendered around a particular operation. A lower number will cause the expression to be parenthesized when applied against another operator with higher precedence. The default value of `0` is lower than all operators except for the comma (`,`) and `AS` operators. A value of 100 will be higher or equal to all operators, and -100 will be lower than or equal to all operators.

        See also

        I’m using op() to generate a custom operator and my parenthesis are not coming out correctly - detailed description of how the SQLAlchemy SQL compiler renders parenthesis

      - is_comparison –

        legacy; if True, the operator will be considered as a “comparison” operator, that is which evaluates to a boolean true/false value, like `==`, `>`, etc. This flag is provided so that ORM relationships can establish that the operator is a comparison operator when used in a custom join condition.

        Using the `is_comparison` parameter is superseded by using the `Operators.bool_op()` method instead; this more succinct operator sets this parameter automatically. In SQLAlchemy 2.0 it will also provide for improved typing support.

      - return_type – a `TypeEngine` class or object that will force the return type of an expression produced by this operator to be of that type. By default, operators that specify `Operators.op.is_comparison` will resolve to `Boolean`, and those that do not will be of the same type as the left-hand operand.

    See also

    `Operators.bool_op()`

    Redefining and Creating New Operators

    Using custom operators in join conditions

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`operate(op, *other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.operate()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Operate on an argument.

    This is the lowest level of operation, raises `NotImplementedError` by default.

    Overriding this on a subclass can allow common behavior to be applied to all operations. For example, overriding `ColumnOperators` to apply `func.lower()` to the left and right side:

        class MyComparator(ColumnOperators):
            def operate(self, op, other, **kwargs):
                return op(func.lower(self), func.lower(other), **kwargs)

    Parameters:

      - op – Operator callable.

      - *other – the ‘other’ side of the operation. Will be a single scalar for most operations.

      - **kwargs – modifiers. These may be passed by special operators such as `ColumnOperators.contains()`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`params(*optionaldict, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `Immutable.params()` method of `Immutable`

    Return a copy with `bindparam()` elements replaced.

    Returns a copy of this ClauseElement with `bindparam()` elements replaced with values taken from the given dictionary:

        >>> clause = column('x') + bindparam('foo')
        >>> print(clause.compile().params)
        {'foo':None}
        >>> print(clause.params({'foo':7}).compile().params)
        {'foo':7}

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`references(column)

    Return True if this Column references the given column via foreign key.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`regexp_match(pattern, flags=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.regexp_match()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implements a database-specific ‘regexp match’ operator.

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(table.c.some_column).where(
            table.c.some_column.regexp_match('^(b|c)')
        )

    `ColumnOperators.regexp_match()` attempts to resolve to a REGEXP-like function or operator provided by the backend, however the specific regular expression syntax and flags available are not backend agnostic.

    Examples include:

    - PostgreSQL - renders `x ~ y` or `x !~ y` when negated.

    - Oracle - renders `REGEXP_LIKE(x, y)`

    - SQLite - uses SQLite’s `REGEXP` placeholder operator and calls into the Python `re.match()` builtin.

    - other backends may provide special implementations.

    - Backends without any special implementation will emit the operator as “REGEXP” or “NOT REGEXP”. This is compatible with SQLite and MySQL, for example.

    Regular expression support is currently implemented for Oracle, PostgreSQL, MySQL and MariaDB. Partial support is available for SQLite. Support among third-party dialects may vary.

    Parameters:

      - pattern – The regular expression pattern string or column clause.

      - flags – Any regular expression string flags to apply, passed as plain Python string only. These flags are backend specific. Some backends, like PostgreSQL and MariaDB, may alternatively specify the flags as part of the pattern. When using the ignore case flag ‘i’ in PostgreSQL, the ignore case regexp match operator `~*` or `!~*` will be used.

    New in version 1.4.

    Changed in version 1.4.48,: 2.0.18 Note that due to an implementation error, the “flags” parameter previously accepted SQL expression objects such as column expressions in addition to plain Python strings. This implementation did not work correctly with caching and was removed; strings only should be passed for the “flags” parameter, as these flags are rendered as literal inline values within SQL expressions.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.regexp_replace()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`regexp_replace(pattern, replacement, flags=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.regexp_replace()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implements a database-specific ‘regexp replace’ operator.

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(
            table.c.some_column.regexp_replace(
                'b(..)',
                'XY',
                flags='g'
            )
        )

    `ColumnOperators.regexp_replace()` attempts to resolve to a REGEXP_REPLACE-like function provided by the backend, that usually emit the function `REGEXP_REPLACE()`. However, the specific regular expression syntax and flags available are not backend agnostic.

    Regular expression replacement support is currently implemented for Oracle, PostgreSQL, MySQL 8 or greater and MariaDB. Support among third-party dialects may vary.

    Parameters:

      - pattern – The regular expression pattern string or column clause.

      - pattern – The replacement string or column clause.

      - flags – Any regular expression string flags to apply, passed as plain Python string only. These flags are backend specific. Some backends, like PostgreSQL and MariaDB, may alternatively specify the flags as part of the pattern.

    New in version 1.4.

    Changed in version 1.4.48,: 2.0.18 Note that due to an implementation error, the “flags” parameter previously accepted SQL expression objects such as column expressions in addition to plain Python strings. This implementation did not work correctly with caching and was removed; strings only should be passed for the “flags” parameter, as these flags are rendered as literal inline values within SQL expressions.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.regexp_match()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`reverse_operate(op, other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.reverse_operate()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Reverse operate on an argument.

    Usage is the same as `operate()`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`self_group(against=None)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.self_group()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Apply a ‘grouping’ to this `ClauseElement`.

    This method is overridden by subclasses to return a “grouping” construct, i.e. parenthesis. In particular it’s used by “binary” expressions to provide a grouping around themselves when placed into a larger expression, as well as by `select()` constructs when placed into the FROM clause of another `select()`. (Note that subqueries should be normally created using the `Select.alias()` method, as many platforms require nested SELECT statements to be named).

    As expressions are composed together, the application of `self_group()` is automatic - end-user code should never need to use this method directly. Note that SQLAlchemy’s clause constructs take operator precedence into account - so parenthesis might not be needed, for example, in an expression like `x OR (y AND z)` - AND takes precedence over OR.

    The base `self_group()` method of `ClauseElement` just returns self.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`shares_lineage(othercolumn)

    inherited from the `ColumnElement.shares_lineage()` method of `ColumnElement`

    Return True if the given `ColumnElement` has a common ancestor to this `ColumnElement`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`startswith(other, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.startswith()` method of `ColumnOperators`

    Implement the `startswith` operator.

    Produces a LIKE expression that tests against a match for the start of a string value:

        column LIKE <other> || '%'

    E.g.:

        stmt = select(sometable).\
            where(sometable.c.column.startswith("foobar"))

    Since the operator uses `LIKE`, wildcard characters `"%"` and `"_"` that are present inside the <other> expression will behave like wildcards as well. For literal string values, the `ColumnOperators.startswith.autoescape` flag may be set to `True` to apply escaping to occurrences of these characters within the string value so that they match as themselves and not as wildcard characters. Alternatively, the `ColumnOperators.startswith.escape` parameter will establish a given character as an escape character which can be of use when the target expression is not a literal string.

    Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared. This is usually a plain string value, but can also be an arbitrary SQL expression. LIKE wildcard characters `%` and `_` are not escaped by default unless the `ColumnOperators.startswith.autoescape` flag is set to True.

      - autoescape –

        boolean; when True, establishes an escape character within the LIKE expression, then applies it to all occurrences of `"%"`, `"_"` and the escape character itself within the comparison value, which is assumed to be a literal string and not a SQL expression.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.startswith("foo%bar", autoescape=True)

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE :param || '%' ESCAPE '/'

        With the value of `:param` as `"foo/%bar"`.

      - escape –

        a character which when given will render with the `ESCAPE` keyword to establish that character as the escape character. This character can then be placed preceding occurrences of `%` and `_` to allow them to act as themselves and not wildcard characters.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.startswith("foo/%bar", escape="^")

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE :param || '%' ESCAPE '^'

        The parameter may also be combined with `ColumnOperators.startswith.autoescape`:

            somecolumn.startswith("foo%bar^bat", escape="^", autoescape=True)

        Where above, the given literal parameter will be converted to `"foo^%bar^^bat"` before being passed to the database.

    See also

    `ColumnOperators.endswith()`

    `ColumnOperators.contains()`

    `ColumnOperators.like()`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`timetuple = None

    inherited from the `ColumnOperators.timetuple` attribute of `ColumnOperators`

    Hack, allows datetime objects to be compared on the LHS.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`unique = None

    The value of the `Column.unique` parameter.

    Does not indicate if this `Column` is actually subject to a unique constraint or not; use `Table.indexes` and `Table.constraints`.

    See also

    `Table.indexes`

    `Table.constraints`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Column.`unique_params(*optionaldict, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `Immutable.unique_params()` method of `Immutable`

    Return a copy with `bindparam()` elements replaced.

    Same functionality as `ClauseElement.params()`, except adds unique=True to affected bind parameters so that multiple statements can be used.

class sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData(bind=None, schema=None, quote_schema=None, naming_convention=None, info=None)

  A collection of `Table` objects and their associated schema constructs.

  Holds a collection of `Table` objects as well as an optional binding to an `Engine` or `Connection`. If bound, the `Table` objects in the collection and their columns may participate in implicit SQL execution.

  The `Table` objects themselves are stored in the `MetaData.tables` dictionary.

  `MetaData` is a thread-safe object for read operations. Construction of new tables within a single `MetaData` object, either explicitly or via reflection, may not be completely thread-safe.

  See also

  Describing Databases with MetaData - Introduction to database metadata

  Members

  __init__(), bind, clear(), create_all(), drop_all(), is_bound(), reflect(), remove(), sorted_tables, tables

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData` (`sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem`)

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`__init__(bind=None, schema=None, quote_schema=None, naming_convention=None, info=None)

    Create a new MetaData object.

    Parameters:

      - bind –

        An Engine or Connection to bind to. May also be a string or URL instance, these are passed to `create_engine()` and this `MetaData` will be bound to the resulting engine.

        Deprecated since version 1.4: The `MetaData.bind` argument is deprecated and will be removed in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

      - schema –

        The default schema to use for the `Table`, `Sequence`, and potentially other objects associated with this `MetaData`. Defaults to `None`.

        See also

        Specifying a Default Schema Name with MetaData - details on how the `MetaData.schema` parameter is used.

        `Table.schema`

        `Sequence.schema`

      - quote_schema – Sets the `quote_schema` flag for those `Table`, `Sequence`, and other objects which make usage of the local `schema` name.

      - info –

        Optional data dictionary which will be populated into the `SchemaItem.info` attribute of this object.

        New in version 1.0.0.

      - naming_convention –

        a dictionary referring to values which will establish default naming conventions for `Constraint` and `Index` objects, for those objects which are not given a name explicitly.

        The keys of this dictionary may be:

        - a constraint or Index class, e.g. the `UniqueConstraint`, `ForeignKeyConstraint` class, the `Index` class

        - a string mnemonic for one of the known constraint classes; `"fk"`, `"pk"`, `"ix"`, `"ck"`, `"uq"` for foreign key, primary key, index, check, and unique constraint, respectively.

        - the string name of a user-defined “token” that can be used to define new naming tokens.

        The values associated with each “constraint class” or “constraint mnemonic” key are string naming templates, such as `"uq_%(table_name)s_%(column_0_name)s"`, which describe how the name should be composed. The values associated with user-defined “token” keys should be callables of the form `fn(constraint, table)`, which accepts the constraint/index object and `Table` as arguments, returning a string result.

        The built-in names are as follows, some of which may only be available for certain types of constraint:

        > - `%(table_name)s` - the name of the `Table` object associated with the constraint.

        > - `%(referred_table_name)s` - the name of the `Table` object associated with the referencing target of a `ForeignKeyConstraint`.

        > - `%(column_0_name)s` - the name of the `Column` at index position “0” within the constraint.

        > - `%(column_0N_name)s` - the name of all `Column` objects in order within the constraint, joined without a separator.

        > - `%(column_0_N_name)s` - the name of all `Column` objects in order within the constraint, joined with an underscore as a separator.

        > - `%(column_0_label)s`, `%(column_0N_label)s`, `%(column_0_N_label)s` - the label of either the zeroth `Column` or all `Columns`, separated with or without an underscore

        > - `%(column_0_key)s`, `%(column_0N_key)s`, `%(column_0_N_key)s` - the key of either the zeroth `Column` or all `Columns`, separated with or without an underscore

        > - `%(referred_column_0_name)s`, `%(referred_column_0N_name)s` `%(referred_column_0_N_name)s`, `%(referred_column_0_key)s`, `%(referred_column_0N_key)s`, … column tokens which render the names/keys/labels of columns that are referenced by a `ForeignKeyConstraint`.

        > - `%(constraint_name)s` - a special key that refers to the existing name given to the constraint. When this key is present, the `Constraint` object’s existing name will be replaced with one that is composed from template string that uses this token. When this token is present, it is required that the `Constraint` is given an explicit name ahead of time.

        > - user-defined: any additional token may be implemented by passing it along with a `fn(constraint, table)` callable to the naming_convention dictionary.

        New in version 1.3.0: - added new `%(column_0N_name)s`, `%(column_0_N_name)s`, and related tokens that produce concatenations of names, keys, or labels for all columns referred to by a given constraint.

        See also

        Configuring Constraint Naming Conventions - for detailed usage examples.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`bind

    An `Engine` or `Connection` to which this `MetaData` is bound.

    Typically, a `Engine` is assigned to this attribute so that “implicit execution” may be used, or alternatively as a means of providing engine binding information to an ORM `Session` object:

        engine = create_engine("someurl://")
        metadata.bind = engine

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The metadata.bind attribute, as part of the deprecated system of “implicit execution”, is itself deprecated and will be removed in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

    See also

    Connectionless Execution, Implicit Execution - background on “bound metadata”

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`clear()

    Clear all Table objects from this MetaData.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`create_all(bind=None, tables=None, checkfirst=True)

    Create all tables stored in this metadata.

    Conditional by default, will not attempt to recreate tables already present in the target database.

    Parameters:

      - bind –

        A `Connectable` used to access the database; if None, uses the existing bind on this `MetaData`, if any.

        Note

        the “bind” argument will be required in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

      - tables – Optional list of `Table` objects, which is a subset of the total tables in the `MetaData` (others are ignored).

      - checkfirst – Defaults to True, don’t issue CREATEs for tables already present in the target database.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`drop_all(bind=None, tables=None, checkfirst=True)

    Drop all tables stored in this metadata.

    Conditional by default, will not attempt to drop tables not present in the target database.

    Parameters:

      - bind –

        A `Connectable` used to access the database; if None, uses the existing bind on this `MetaData`, if any.

        Note

        the “bind” argument will be required in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

      - tables – Optional list of `Table` objects, which is a subset of the total tables in the `MetaData` (others are ignored).

      - checkfirst – Defaults to True, only issue DROPs for tables confirmed to be present in the target database.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`is_bound()

    True if this MetaData is bound to an Engine or Connection.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`reflect(bind=None, schema=None, views=False, only=None, extend_existing=False, autoload_replace=True, resolve_fks=True, **dialect_kwargs)

    Load all available table definitions from the database.

    Automatically creates `Table` entries in this `MetaData` for any table available in the database but not yet present in the `MetaData`. May be called multiple times to pick up tables recently added to the database, however no special action is taken if a table in this `MetaData` no longer exists in the database.

    Parameters:

      - bind –

        A `Connectable` used to access the database; if None, uses the existing bind on this `MetaData`, if any.

        Note

        the “bind” argument will be required in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

      - schema – Optional, query and reflect tables from an alternate schema. If None, the schema associated with this `MetaData` is used, if any.

      - views – If True, also reflect views.

      - only –

        Optional. Load only a sub-set of available named tables. May be specified as a sequence of names or a callable.

        If a sequence of names is provided, only those tables will be reflected. An error is raised if a table is requested but not available. Named tables already present in this `MetaData` are ignored.

        If a callable is provided, it will be used as a boolean predicate to filter the list of potential table names. The callable is called with a table name and this `MetaData` instance as positional arguments and should return a true value for any table to reflect.

      - extend_existing –

        Passed along to each `Table` as `Table.extend_existing`.

        New in version 0.9.1.

      - autoload_replace –

        Passed along to each `Table` as `Table.autoload_replace`.

        New in version 0.9.1.

      - resolve_fks –

        if True, reflect `Table` objects linked to `ForeignKey` objects located in each `Table`. For `MetaData.reflect()`, this has the effect of reflecting related tables that might otherwise not be in the list of tables being reflected, for example if the referenced table is in a different schema or is omitted via the `MetaData.reflect.only` parameter. When False, `ForeignKey` objects are not followed to the `Table` in which they link, however if the related table is also part of the list of tables that would be reflected in any case, the `ForeignKey` object will still resolve to its related `Table` after the `MetaData.reflect()` operation is complete. Defaults to True.

        New in version 1.3.0.

        See also

        `Table.resolve_fks`

      - **dialect_kwargs –

        Additional keyword arguments not mentioned above are dialect specific, and passed in the form `<dialectname>_<argname>`. See the documentation regarding an individual dialect at Dialects for detail on documented arguments.

        > New in version 0.9.2: - Added `MetaData.reflect.**dialect_kwargs` to support dialect-level reflection options for all `Table` objects reflected.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`remove(table)

    Remove the given Table object from this MetaData.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`sorted_tables

    Returns a list of `Table` objects sorted in order of foreign key dependency.

    The sorting will place `Table` objects that have dependencies first, before the dependencies themselves, representing the order in which they can be created. To get the order in which the tables would be dropped, use the `reversed()` Python built-in.

    Warning

    The `MetaData.sorted_tables` attribute cannot by itself accommodate automatic resolution of dependency cycles between tables, which are usually caused by mutually dependent foreign key constraints. When these cycles are detected, the foreign keys of these tables are omitted from consideration in the sort. A warning is emitted when this condition occurs, which will be an exception raise in a future release. Tables which are not part of the cycle will still be returned in dependency order.

    To resolve these cycles, the `ForeignKeyConstraint.use_alter` parameter may be applied to those constraints which create a cycle. Alternatively, the `sort_tables_and_constraints()` function will automatically return foreign key constraints in a separate collection when cycles are detected so that they may be applied to a schema separately.

    Changed in version 1.3.17: - a warning is emitted when `MetaData.sorted_tables` cannot perform a proper sort due to cyclical dependencies. This will be an exception in a future release. Additionally, the sort will continue to return other tables not involved in the cycle in dependency order which was not the case previously.

    See also

    `sort_tables()`

    `sort_tables_and_constraints()`

    `MetaData.tables`

    `Inspector.get_table_names()`

    `Inspector.get_sorted_table_and_fkc_names()`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData.`tables = None

    A dictionary of `Table` objects keyed to their name or “table key”.

    The exact key is that determined by the `Table.key` attribute; for a table with no `Table.schema` attribute, this is the same as `Table.name`. For a table with a schema, it is typically of the form `schemaname.tablename`.

    See also

    `MetaData.sorted_tables`

class sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem

  Base class for items that define a database schema.

  Members

  info

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem` (`sqlalchemy.sql.expression.SchemaEventTarget`, `sqlalchemy.sql.visitors.Traversible`)

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem.`info

    Info dictionary associated with the object, allowing user-defined data to be associated with this `SchemaItem`.

    The dictionary is automatically generated when first accessed. It can also be specified in the constructor of some objects, such as `Table` and `Column`.

class sqlalchemy.schema.Table(*args, **kw)

  Represent a table in a database.

  e.g.:

      mytable = Table(
          "mytable", metadata,
          Column('mytable_id', Integer, primary_key=True),
          Column('value', String(50))
      )

  The `Table` object constructs a unique instance of itself based on its name and optional schema name within the given `MetaData` object. Calling the `Table` constructor with the same name and same `MetaData` argument a second time will return the same `Table` object - in this way the `Table` constructor acts as a registry function.

  See also

  Describing Databases with MetaData - Introduction to database metadata

  Constructor arguments are as follows:

  Parameters:

    - name –

      The name of this table as represented in the database.

      The table name, along with the value of the `schema` parameter, forms a key which uniquely identifies this `Table` within the owning `MetaData` collection. Additional calls to `Table` with the same name, metadata, and schema name will return the same `Table` object.

      Names which contain no upper case characters will be treated as case insensitive names, and will not be quoted unless they are a reserved word or contain special characters. A name with any number of upper case characters is considered to be case sensitive, and will be sent as quoted.

      To enable unconditional quoting for the table name, specify the flag `quote=True` to the constructor, or use the `quoted_name` construct to specify the name.

    - metadata – a `MetaData` object which will contain this table. The metadata is used as a point of association of this table with other tables which are referenced via foreign key. It also may be used to associate this table with a particular `Connectable`.

    - *args – Additional positional arguments are used primarily to add the list of `Column` objects contained within this table. Similar to the style of a CREATE TABLE statement, other `SchemaItem` constructs may be added here, including `PrimaryKeyConstraint`, and `ForeignKeyConstraint`.

    - autoload –

      Defaults to `False`, unless `Table.autoload_with` is set in which case it defaults to `True`; `Column` objects for this table should be reflected from the database, possibly augmenting objects that were explicitly specified. `Column` and other objects explicitly set on the table will replace corresponding reflected objects.

      Deprecated since version 1.4: The autoload parameter is deprecated and will be removed in version 2.0. Please use the `Table.autoload_with` parameter, passing an engine or connection.

      See also

      Reflecting Database Objects

    - autoload_replace –

      Defaults to `True`; when using `Table.autoload` in conjunction with `Table.extend_existing`, indicates that `Column` objects present in the already-existing `Table` object should be replaced with columns of the same name retrieved from the autoload process. When `False`, columns already present under existing names will be omitted from the reflection process.

      Note that this setting does not impact `Column` objects specified programmatically within the call to `Table` that also is autoloading; those `Column` objects will always replace existing columns of the same name when `Table.extend_existing` is `True`.

      See also

      `Table.autoload`

      `Table.extend_existing`

    - autoload_with – An `Engine` or `Connection` object, or a `Inspector` object as returned by `inspect()` against one, with which this `Table` object will be reflected. When set to a non-None value, the autoload process will take place for this table against the given engine or connection.

    - extend_existing –

      When `True`, indicates that if this `Table` is already present in the given `MetaData`, apply further arguments within the constructor to the existing `Table`.

      If `Table.extend_existing` or `Table.keep_existing` are not set, and the given name of the new `Table` refers to a `Table` that is already present in the target `MetaData` collection, and this `Table` specifies additional columns or other constructs or flags that modify the table’s state, an error is raised. The purpose of these two mutually-exclusive flags is to specify what action should be taken when a `Table` is specified that matches an existing `Table`, yet specifies additional constructs.

      `Table.extend_existing` will also work in conjunction with `Table.autoload` to run a new reflection operation against the database, even if a `Table` of the same name is already present in the target `MetaData`; newly reflected `Column` objects and other options will be added into the state of the `Table`, potentially overwriting existing columns and options of the same name.

      As is always the case with `Table.autoload`, `Column` objects can be specified in the same `Table` constructor, which will take precedence. Below, the existing table `mytable` will be augmented with `Column` objects both reflected from the database, as well as the given `Column` named “y”:

          Table("mytable", metadata,
                      Column('y', Integer),
                      extend_existing=True,
                      autoload_with=engine
                  )

      See also

      `Table.autoload`

      `Table.autoload_replace`

      `Table.keep_existing`

    - implicit_returning – True by default - indicates that RETURNING can be used by default to fetch newly inserted primary key values, for backends which support this. Note that `create_engine()` also provides an `implicit_returning` flag.

    - include_columns – A list of strings indicating a subset of columns to be loaded via the `autoload` operation; table columns who aren’t present in this list will not be represented on the resulting `Table` object. Defaults to `None` which indicates all columns should be reflected.

    - resolve_fks –

      Whether or not to reflect `Table` objects related to this one via `ForeignKey` objects, when `Table.autoload` or `Table.autoload_with` is specified. Defaults to True. Set to False to disable reflection of related tables as `ForeignKey` objects are encountered; may be used either to save on SQL calls or to avoid issues with related tables that can’t be accessed. Note that if a related table is already present in the `MetaData` collection, or becomes present later, a `ForeignKey` object associated with this `Table` will resolve to that table normally.

      New in version 1.3.

      See also

      `MetaData.reflect.resolve_fks`

    - info – Optional data dictionary which will be populated into the `SchemaItem.info` attribute of this object.

    - keep_existing –

      When `True`, indicates that if this Table is already present in the given `MetaData`, ignore further arguments within the constructor to the existing `Table`, and return the `Table` object as originally created. This is to allow a function that wishes to define a new `Table` on first call, but on subsequent calls will return the same `Table`, without any of the declarations (particularly constraints) being applied a second time.

      If `Table.extend_existing` or `Table.keep_existing` are not set, and the given name of the new `Table` refers to a `Table` that is already present in the target `MetaData` collection, and this `Table` specifies additional columns or other constructs or flags that modify the table’s state, an error is raised. The purpose of these two mutually-exclusive flags is to specify what action should be taken when a `Table` is specified that matches an existing `Table`, yet specifies additional constructs.

      See also

      `Table.extend_existing`

    - listeners –

      A list of tuples of the form `(<eventname>, <fn>)` which will be passed to `listen()` upon construction. This alternate hook to `listen()` allows the establishment of a listener function specific to this `Table` before the “autoload” process begins. Historically this has been intended for use with the `DDLEvents.column_reflect()` event, however note that this event hook may now be associated with the `MetaData` object directly:

          def listen_for_reflect(table, column_info):
              "handle the column reflection event"
              # ...

          t = Table(
              'sometable',
              autoload_with=engine,
              listeners=[
                  ('column_reflect', listen_for_reflect)
              ])

      See also

      `DDLEvents.column_reflect()`

    - must_exist – When `True`, indicates that this Table must already be present in the given `MetaData` collection, else an exception is raised.

    - prefixes – A list of strings to insert after CREATE in the CREATE TABLE statement. They will be separated by spaces.

    - quote –

      Force quoting of this table’s name on or off, corresponding to `True` or `False`. When left at its default of `None`, the column identifier will be quoted according to whether the name is case sensitive (identifiers with at least one upper case character are treated as case sensitive), or if it’s a reserved word. This flag is only needed to force quoting of a reserved word which is not known by the SQLAlchemy dialect.

      Note

      setting this flag to `False` will not provide case-insensitive behavior for table reflection; table reflection will always search for a mixed-case name in a case sensitive fashion. Case insensitive names are specified in SQLAlchemy only by stating the name with all lower case characters.

    - quote_schema – same as ‘quote’ but applies to the schema identifier.

    - schema –

      The schema name for this table, which is required if the table resides in a schema other than the default selected schema for the engine’s database connection. Defaults to `None`.

      If the owning `MetaData` of this `Table` specifies its own `MetaData.schema` parameter, then that schema name will be applied to this `Table` if the schema parameter here is set to `None`. To set a blank schema name on a `Table` that would otherwise use the schema set on the owning `MetaData`, specify the special symbol `BLANK_SCHEMA`.

      New in version 1.0.14: Added the `BLANK_SCHEMA` symbol to allow a `Table` to have a blank schema name even when the parent `MetaData` specifies `MetaData.schema`.

      The quoting rules for the schema name are the same as those for the `name` parameter, in that quoting is applied for reserved words or case-sensitive names; to enable unconditional quoting for the schema name, specify the flag `quote_schema=True` to the constructor, or use the `quoted_name` construct to specify the name.

    - comment –

      Optional string that will render an SQL comment on table creation.

      New in version 1.2: Added the `Table.comment` parameter to `Table`.

    - **kw – Additional keyword arguments not mentioned above are dialect specific, and passed in the form `<dialectname>_<argname>`. See the documentation regarding an individual dialect at Dialects for detail on documented arguments.

  Members

  __init__(), add_is_dependent_on(), alias(), append_column(), append_constraint(), argument_for(), bind, c, columns, compare(), compile(), constraints, corresponding_column(), create(), delete(), description, dialect_kwargs, dialect_options, drop(), entity_namespace, exists(), exported_columns, foreign_key_constraints, foreign_keys, get_children(), implicit_returning, indexes, info, inherit_cache, insert(), is_derived_from(), join(), key, kwargs, lateral(), memoized_instancemethod(), outerjoin(), params(), primary_key, replace_selectable(), schema, select(), self_group(), table_valued(), tablesample(), to_metadata(), tometadata(), unique_params(), update()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.schema.Table` (`sqlalchemy.sql.base.DialectKWArgs`, `sqlalchemy.schema.SchemaItem`, `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.TableClause`)

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`__init__(*args, **kw)

    Constructor for `Table`.

    This method is a no-op. See the top-level documentation for `Table` for constructor arguments.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`add_is_dependent_on(table)

    Add a ‘dependency’ for this Table.

    This is another Table object which must be created first before this one can, or dropped after this one.

    Usually, dependencies between tables are determined via ForeignKey objects. However, for other situations that create dependencies outside of foreign keys (rules, inheriting), this method can manually establish such a link.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`alias(name=None, flat=False)

    inherited from the `FromClause.alias()` method of `FromClause`

    Return an alias of this `FromClause`.

    E.g.:

        a2 = some_table.alias('a2')

    The above code creates an `Alias` object which can be used as a FROM clause in any SELECT statement.

    See also

    Using Aliases

    `alias()`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`append_column(column, replace_existing=False)

    Append a `Column` to this `Table`.

    The “key” of the newly added `Column`, i.e. the value of its `.key` attribute, will then be available in the `.c` collection of this `Table`, and the column definition will be included in any CREATE TABLE, SELECT, UPDATE, etc. statements generated from this `Table` construct.

    Note that this does not change the definition of the table as it exists within any underlying database, assuming that table has already been created in the database. Relational databases support the addition of columns to existing tables using the SQL ALTER command, which would need to be emitted for an already-existing table that doesn’t contain the newly added column.

    Parameters:

      replace_existing –

      When `True`, allows replacing existing columns. When `False`, the default, an warning will be raised if a column with the same `.key` already exists. A future version of sqlalchemy will instead rise a warning.

      New in version 1.4.0.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`append_constraint(constraint)

    Append a `Constraint` to this `Table`.

    This has the effect of the constraint being included in any future CREATE TABLE statement, assuming specific DDL creation events have not been associated with the given `Constraint` object.

    Note that this does not produce the constraint within the relational database automatically, for a table that already exists in the database. To add a constraint to an existing relational database table, the SQL ALTER command must be used. SQLAlchemy also provides the `AddConstraint` construct which can produce this SQL when invoked as an executable clause.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`argument_for(dialect_name, argument_name, default)

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.argument_for()` method of `DialectKWArgs`

    Add a new kind of dialect-specific keyword argument for this class.

    E.g.:

        Index.argument_for("mydialect", "length", None)

        some_index = Index('a', 'b', mydialect_length=5)

    The `DialectKWArgs.argument_for()` method is a per-argument way adding extra arguments to the `DefaultDialect.construct_arguments` dictionary. This dictionary provides a list of argument names accepted by various schema-level constructs on behalf of a dialect.

    New dialects should typically specify this dictionary all at once as a data member of the dialect class. The use case for ad-hoc addition of argument names is typically for end-user code that is also using a custom compilation scheme which consumes the additional arguments.

    Parameters:

      - dialect_name – name of a dialect. The dialect must be locatable, else a `NoSuchModuleError` is raised. The dialect must also include an existing `DefaultDialect.construct_arguments` collection, indicating that it participates in the keyword-argument validation and default system, else `ArgumentError` is raised. If the dialect does not include this collection, then any keyword argument can be specified on behalf of this dialect already. All dialects packaged within SQLAlchemy include this collection, however for third party dialects, support may vary.

      - argument_name – name of the parameter.

      - default – default value of the parameter.

    New in version 0.9.4.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`bind

    Return the connectable associated with this Table.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`c

    inherited from the `FromClause.c` attribute of `FromClause`

    A named-based collection of `ColumnElement` objects maintained by this `FromClause`.

    The `FromClause.c` attribute is an alias for the `FromClause.columns` attribute.

    Returns:

      a `ColumnCollection`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`columns

    inherited from the `FromClause.columns` attribute of `FromClause`

    A named-based collection of `ColumnElement` objects maintained by this `FromClause`.

    The `columns`, or `c` collection, is the gateway to the construction of SQL expressions using table-bound or other selectable-bound columns:

        select(mytable).where(mytable.c.somecolumn == 5)

    Returns:

      a `ColumnCollection` object.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`compare(other, **kw)

    inherited from the `ClauseElement.compare()` method of `ClauseElement`

    Compare this `ClauseElement` to the given `ClauseElement`.

    Subclasses should override the default behavior, which is a straight identity comparison.

    **kw are arguments consumed by subclass `compare()` methods and may be used to modify the criteria for comparison (see `ColumnElement`).

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`compile(bind=None, dialect=None, **kw)

    inherited from the `ClauseElement.compile()` method of `ClauseElement`

    Compile this SQL expression.

    The return value is a `Compiled` object. Calling `str()` or `unicode()` on the returned value will yield a string representation of the result. The `Compiled` object also can return a dictionary of bind parameter names and values using the `params` accessor.

    Parameters:

      - bind – An `Engine` or `Connection` from which a `Compiled` will be acquired. This argument takes precedence over this `ClauseElement`’s bound engine, if any.

      - column_keys – Used for INSERT and UPDATE statements, a list of column names which should be present in the VALUES clause of the compiled statement. If `None`, all columns from the target table object are rendered.

      - dialect – A `Dialect` instance from which a `Compiled` will be acquired. This argument takes precedence over the bind argument as well as this `ClauseElement` ‘s bound engine, if any.

      - compile_kwargs –

        optional dictionary of additional parameters that will be passed through to the compiler within all “visit” methods. This allows any custom flag to be passed through to a custom compilation construct, for example. It is also used for the case of passing the `literal_binds` flag through:

            from sqlalchemy.sql import table, column, select

            t = table('t', column('x'))

            s = select(t).where(t.c.x == 5)

            print(s.compile(compile_kwargs={"literal_binds": True}))

        New in version 0.9.0.

    See also

    How do I render SQL expressions as strings, possibly with bound parameters inlined?

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`constraints = None

    A collection of all `Constraint` objects associated with this `Table`.

    Includes `PrimaryKeyConstraint`, `ForeignKeyConstraint`, `UniqueConstraint`, `CheckConstraint`. A separate collection `Table.foreign_key_constraints` refers to the collection of all `ForeignKeyConstraint` objects, and the `Table.primary_key` attribute refers to the single `PrimaryKeyConstraint` associated with the `Table`.

    See also

    `Table.constraints`

    `Table.primary_key`

    `Table.foreign_key_constraints`

    `Table.indexes`

    `Inspector`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`corresponding_column(column, require_embedded=False)

    inherited from the `Selectable.corresponding_column()` method of `Selectable`

    Given a `ColumnElement`, return the exported `ColumnElement` object from the `Selectable.exported_columns` collection of this `Selectable` which corresponds to that original `ColumnElement` via a common ancestor column.

    Parameters:

      - column – the target `ColumnElement` to be matched.

      - require_embedded – only return corresponding columns for the given `ColumnElement`, if the given `ColumnElement` is actually present within a sub-element of this `Selectable`. Normally the column will match if it merely shares a common ancestor with one of the exported columns of this `Selectable`.

    See also

    `Selectable.exported_columns` - the `ColumnCollection` that is used for the operation.

    `ColumnCollection.corresponding_column()` - implementation method.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`create(bind=None, checkfirst=False)

    Issue a `CREATE` statement for this `Table`, using the given `Connectable` for connectivity.

    Note

    the “bind” argument will be required in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

    See also

    `MetaData.create_all()`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`delete(whereclause=None, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `TableClause.delete()` method of `TableClause`

    Generate a `delete()` construct against this `TableClause`.

    E.g.:

        table.delete().where(table.c.id==7)

    See `delete()` for argument and usage information.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`description

    inherited from the `TableClause.description` attribute of `TableClause`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`dialect_kwargs

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A collection of keyword arguments specified as dialect-specific options to this construct.

    The arguments are present here in their original `<dialect>_<kwarg>` format. Only arguments that were actually passed are included; unlike the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` collection, which contains all options known by this dialect including defaults.

    The collection is also writable; keys are accepted of the form `<dialect>_<kwarg>` where the value will be assembled into the list of options.

    New in version 0.9.2.

    Changed in version 0.9.4: The `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` collection is now writable.

    See also

    `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` - nested dictionary form

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`dialect_options

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.dialect_options` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A collection of keyword arguments specified as dialect-specific options to this construct.

    This is a two-level nested registry, keyed to `<dialect_name>` and `<argument_name>`. For example, the `postgresql_where` argument would be locatable as:

        arg = my_object.dialect_options['postgresql']['where']

    New in version 0.9.2.

    See also

    `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs` - flat dictionary form

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`drop(bind=None, checkfirst=False)

    Issue a `DROP` statement for this `Table`, using the given `Connectable` for connectivity.

    Note

    the “bind” argument will be required in SQLAlchemy 2.0.

    See also

    `MetaData.drop_all()`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`entity_namespace

    inherited from the `FromClause.entity_namespace` attribute of `FromClause`

    Return a namespace used for name-based access in SQL expressions.

    This is the namespace that is used to resolve “filter_by()” type expressions, such as:

        stmt.filter_by(address='some address')

    It defaults to the `.c` collection, however internally it can be overridden using the “entity_namespace” annotation to deliver alternative results.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`exists(bind=None)

    Return True if this table exists.

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The `Table.exists()` method is deprecated and will be removed in a future release. Please refer to `Inspector.has_table()`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`exported_columns

    inherited from the `FromClause.exported_columns` attribute of `FromClause`

    A `ColumnCollection` that represents the “exported” columns of this `Selectable`.

    The “exported” columns for a `FromClause` object are synonymous with the `FromClause.columns` collection.

    New in version 1.4.

    See also

    `Selectable.exported_columns`

    `SelectBase.exported_columns`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`foreign_key_constraints

    `ForeignKeyConstraint` objects referred to by this `Table`.

    This list is produced from the collection of `ForeignKey` objects currently associated.

    See also

    `Table.constraints`

    `Table.foreign_keys`

    `Table.indexes`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`foreign_keys

    inherited from the `FromClause.foreign_keys` attribute of `FromClause`

    Return the collection of `ForeignKey` marker objects which this FromClause references.

    Each `ForeignKey` is a member of a `Table`-wide `ForeignKeyConstraint`.

    See also

    `Table.foreign_key_constraints`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`get_children(omit_attrs=(), **kw)

    inherited from the `Traversible.get_children()` method of `Traversible`

    Return immediate child `Traversible` elements of this `Traversible`.

    This is used for visit traversal.

    **kw may contain flags that change the collection that is returned, for example to return a subset of items in order to cut down on larger traversals, or to return child items from a different context (such as schema-level collections instead of clause-level).

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`implicit_returning = False

    inherited from the `TableClause.implicit_returning` attribute of `TableClause`

    `TableClause` doesn’t support having a primary key or column -level defaults, so implicit returning doesn’t apply.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`indexes = None

    A collection of all `Index` objects associated with this `Table`.

    See also

    `Inspector.get_indexes()`

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`info

    inherited from the `SchemaItem.info` attribute of `SchemaItem`

    Info dictionary associated with the object, allowing user-defined data to be associated with this `SchemaItem`.

    The dictionary is automatically generated when first accessed. It can also be specified in the constructor of some objects, such as `Table` and `Column`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`inherit_cache = None

    inherited from the `HasCacheKey.inherit_cache` attribute of `HasCacheKey`

    Indicate if this `HasCacheKey` instance should make use of the cache key generation scheme used by its immediate superclass.

    The attribute defaults to `None`, which indicates that a construct has not yet taken into account whether or not its appropriate for it to participate in caching; this is functionally equivalent to setting the value to `False`, except that a warning is also emitted.

    This flag can be set to `True` on a particular class, if the SQL that corresponds to the object does not change based on attributes which are local to this class, and not its superclass.

    See also

    Enabling Caching Support for Custom Constructs - General guideslines for setting the `HasCacheKey.inherit_cache` attribute for third-party or user defined SQL constructs.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`insert(values=None, inline=False, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `TableClause.insert()` method of `TableClause`

    Generate an `insert()` construct against this `TableClause`.

    E.g.:

        table.insert().values(name='foo')

    See `insert()` for argument and usage information.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`is_derived_from(fromclause)

    inherited from the `FromClause.is_derived_from()` method of `FromClause`

    Return `True` if this `FromClause` is ‘derived’ from the given `FromClause`.

    An example would be an Alias of a Table is derived from that Table.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`join(right, onclause=None, isouter=False, full=False)

    inherited from the `FromClause.join()` method of `FromClause`

    Return a `Join` from this `FromClause` to another `FromClause`.

    E.g.:

        from sqlalchemy import join

        j = user_table.join(address_table,
                        user_table.c.id == address_table.c.user_id)
        stmt = select(user_table).select_from(j)

    would emit SQL along the lines of:

        SELECT user.id, user.name FROM user
        JOIN address ON user.id = address.user_id

    Parameters:

      - right – the right side of the join; this is any `FromClause` object such as a `Table` object, and may also be a selectable-compatible object such as an ORM-mapped class.

      - onclause – a SQL expression representing the ON clause of the join. If left at `None`, `FromClause.join()` will attempt to join the two tables based on a foreign key relationship.

      - isouter – if True, render a LEFT OUTER JOIN, instead of JOIN.

      - full –

        if True, render a FULL OUTER JOIN, instead of LEFT OUTER JOIN. Implies `FromClause.join.isouter`.

        New in version 1.1.

    See also

    `join()` - standalone function

    `Join` - the type of object produced

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`key

    Return the ‘key’ for this `Table`.

    This value is used as the dictionary key within the `MetaData.tables` collection. It is typically the same as that of `Table.name` for a table with no `Table.schema` set; otherwise it is typically of the form `schemaname.tablename`.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`kwargs

    inherited from the `DialectKWArgs.kwargs` attribute of `DialectKWArgs`

    A synonym for `DialectKWArgs.dialect_kwargs`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`lateral(name=None)

    inherited from the `Selectable.lateral()` method of `Selectable`

    Return a LATERAL alias of this `Selectable`.

    The return value is the `Lateral` construct also provided by the top-level `lateral()` function.

    New in version 1.1.

    See also

    LATERAL correlation - overview of usage.

  classmethod `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`memoized_instancemethod(fn)

    inherited from the `HasMemoized.memoized_instancemethod()` method of `HasMemoized`

    Decorate a method memoize its return value.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`outerjoin(right, onclause=None, full=False)

    inherited from the `FromClause.outerjoin()` method of `FromClause`

    Return a `Join` from this `FromClause` to another `FromClause`, with the “isouter” flag set to True.

    E.g.:

        from sqlalchemy import outerjoin

        j = user_table.outerjoin(address_table,
                        user_table.c.id == address_table.c.user_id)

    The above is equivalent to:

        j = user_table.join(
            address_table,
            user_table.c.id == address_table.c.user_id,
            isouter=True)

    Parameters:

      - right – the right side of the join; this is any `FromClause` object such as a `Table` object, and may also be a selectable-compatible object such as an ORM-mapped class.

      - onclause – a SQL expression representing the ON clause of the join. If left at `None`, `FromClause.join()` will attempt to join the two tables based on a foreign key relationship.

      - full –

        if True, render a FULL OUTER JOIN, instead of LEFT OUTER JOIN.

        New in version 1.1.

    See also

    `FromClause.join()`

    `Join`

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`params(*optionaldict, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `Immutable.params()` method of `Immutable`

    Return a copy with `bindparam()` elements replaced.

    Returns a copy of this ClauseElement with `bindparam()` elements replaced with values taken from the given dictionary:

        >>> clause = column('x') + bindparam('foo')
        >>> print(clause.compile().params)
        {'foo':None}
        >>> print(clause.params({'foo':7}).compile().params)
        {'foo':7}

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`primary_key

    inherited from the `FromClause.primary_key` attribute of `FromClause`

    Return the iterable collection of `Column` objects which comprise the primary key of this `_selectable.FromClause`.

    For a `Table` object, this collection is represented by the `PrimaryKeyConstraint` which itself is an iterable collection of `Column` objects.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`replace_selectable(old, alias)

    inherited from the `Selectable.replace_selectable()` method of `Selectable`

    Replace all occurrences of `FromClause` ‘old’ with the given `Alias` object, returning a copy of this `FromClause`.

    Deprecated since version 1.4: The `Selectable.replace_selectable()` method is deprecated, and will be removed in a future release. Similar functionality is available via the sqlalchemy.sql.visitors module.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`schema = None

    inherited from the `FromClause.schema` attribute of `FromClause`

    Define the ‘schema’ attribute for this `FromClause`.

    This is typically `None` for most objects except that of `Table`, where it is taken as the value of the `Table.schema` argument.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`select(whereclause=None, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `FromClause.select()` method of `FromClause`

    Return a SELECT of this `FromClause`.

    e.g.:

        stmt = some_table.select().where(some_table.c.id == 5)

    Parameters:

      - whereclause –

        a WHERE clause, equivalent to calling the `Select.where()` method.

        Deprecated since version 1.4: The `FromClause.select().whereclause` parameter is deprecated and will be removed in version 2.0. Please make use of the `Select.where()` method to add WHERE criteria to the SELECT statement.

      - **kwargs – additional keyword arguments are passed to the legacy constructor for `Select` described at `Select.create_legacy_select()`.

    See also

    `select()` - general purpose method which allows for arbitrary column lists.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`self_group(against=None)

    inherited from the `ClauseElement.self_group()` method of `ClauseElement`

    Apply a ‘grouping’ to this `ClauseElement`.

    This method is overridden by subclasses to return a “grouping” construct, i.e. parenthesis. In particular it’s used by “binary” expressions to provide a grouping around themselves when placed into a larger expression, as well as by `select()` constructs when placed into the FROM clause of another `select()`. (Note that subqueries should be normally created using the `Select.alias()` method, as many platforms require nested SELECT statements to be named).

    As expressions are composed together, the application of `self_group()` is automatic - end-user code should never need to use this method directly. Note that SQLAlchemy’s clause constructs take operator precedence into account - so parenthesis might not be needed, for example, in an expression like `x OR (y AND z)` - AND takes precedence over OR.

    The base `self_group()` method of `ClauseElement` just returns self.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`table_valued()

    inherited from the `FromClause.table_valued()` method of `FromClause`

    Return a `TableValuedColumn` object for this `FromClause`.

    A `TableValuedColumn` is a `ColumnElement` that represents a complete row in a table. Support for this construct is backend dependent, and is supported in various forms by backends such as PostgreSQL, Oracle and SQL Server.

    E.g.:

        >>> from sqlalchemy import select, column, func, table
        >>> a = table("a", column("id"), column("x"), column("y"))
        >>> stmt = select(func.row_to_json(a.table_valued()))
        >>> print(stmt)
        SELECT row_to_json(a) AS row_to_json_1
        FROM a

    New in version 1.4.0b2.

    See also

    Working with SQL Functions - in the SQLAlchemy 1.4 / 2.0 Tutorial

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`tablesample(sampling, name=None, seed=None)

    inherited from the `FromClause.tablesample()` method of `FromClause`

    Return a TABLESAMPLE alias of this `FromClause`.

    The return value is the `TableSample` construct also provided by the top-level `tablesample()` function.

    New in version 1.1.

    See also

    `tablesample()` - usage guidelines and parameters

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`to_metadata(metadata, schema=symbol('retain_schemaSymbol indicating that a :class:`_schema.Table`, :class:`.Sequence`\n or in some cases a :class:`_schema.ForeignKey` object, in situations\n where the object is being copied for a :meth:`.Table.to_metadata`\n operation, should retain the schema name that it already has.\n\n '), referred_schema_fn=None, name=None)

    Return a copy of this `Table` associated with a different `MetaData`.

    E.g.:

        m1 = MetaData()

        user = Table('user', m1, Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True))

        m2 = MetaData()
        user_copy = user.to_metadata(m2)

    Changed in version 1.4: The `Table.to_metadata()` function was renamed from `Table.tometadata()`.

    Parameters:

      - metadata – Target `MetaData` object, into which the new `Table` object will be created.

      - schema –

        optional string name indicating the target schema. Defaults to the special symbol `RETAIN_SCHEMA` which indicates that no change to the schema name should be made in the new `Table`. If set to a string name, the new `Table` will have this new name as the `.schema`. If set to `None`, the schema will be set to that of the schema set on the target `MetaData`, which is typically `None` as well, unless set explicitly:

            m2 = MetaData(schema='newschema')

            # user_copy_one will have "newschema" as the schema name
            user_copy_one = user.to_metadata(m2, schema=None)

            m3 = MetaData()  # schema defaults to None

            # user_copy_two will have None as the schema name
            user_copy_two = user.to_metadata(m3, schema=None)

      - referred_schema_fn –

        optional callable which can be supplied in order to provide for the schema name that should be assigned to the referenced table of a `ForeignKeyConstraint`. The callable accepts this parent `Table`, the target schema that we are changing to, the `ForeignKeyConstraint` object, and the existing “target schema” of that constraint. The function should return the string schema name that should be applied. To reset the schema to “none”, return the symbol `BLANK_SCHEMA`. To effect no change, return `None` or `RETAIN_SCHEMA`.

        Changed in version 1.4.33: The `referred_schema_fn` function may return the `BLANK_SCHEMA` or `RETAIN_SCHEMA` symbols.

        E.g.:

            def referred_schema_fn(table, to_schema,
                                            constraint, referred_schema):
                if referred_schema == 'base_tables':
                    return referred_schema
                else:
                    return to_schema

            new_table = table.to_metadata(m2, schema="alt_schema",
                                    referred_schema_fn=referred_schema_fn)

        New in version 0.9.2.

      - name –

        optional string name indicating the target table name. If not specified or None, the table name is retained. This allows a `Table` to be copied to the same `MetaData` target with a new name.

        New in version 1.0.0.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`tometadata(metadata, schema=symbol('retain_schemaSymbol indicating that a :class:`_schema.Table`, :class:`.Sequence`\n or in some cases a :class:`_schema.ForeignKey` object, in situations\n where the object is being copied for a :meth:`.Table.to_metadata`\n operation, should retain the schema name that it already has.\n\n '), referred_schema_fn=None, name=None)

    Return a copy of this `Table` associated with a different `MetaData`.

    Deprecated since version 1.4: `Table.tometadata()` is renamed to `Table.to_metadata()`

    See `Table.to_metadata()` for a full description.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`unique_params(*optionaldict, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `Immutable.unique_params()` method of `Immutable`

    Return a copy with `bindparam()` elements replaced.

    Same functionality as `ClauseElement.params()`, except adds unique=True to affected bind parameters so that multiple statements can be used.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.Table.`update(whereclause=None, values=None, inline=False, **kwargs)

    inherited from the `TableClause.update()` method of `TableClause`

    Generate an `update()` construct against this `TableClause`.

    E.g.:

        table.update().where(table.c.id==7).values(name='foo')

    See `update()` for argument and usage information.

class sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData

  A MetaData variant that presents a different `bind` in every thread.

  Deprecated since version 1.4: `ThreadLocalMetaData` is deprecated and will be removed in a future release.

  Makes the `bind` property of the MetaData a thread-local value, allowing this collection of tables to be bound to different `Engine` implementations or connections in each thread.

  The ThreadLocalMetaData starts off bound to None in each thread. Binds must be made explicitly by assigning to the `bind` property or using `connect()`. You can also re-bind dynamically multiple times per thread, just like a regular `MetaData`.

  Members

  __init__(), bind, dispose(), is_bound()

  Class signature

  class `sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData` (`sqlalchemy.schema.MetaData`)

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData.`__init__()

    Construct a ThreadLocalMetaData.

  attribute `sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData.`bind

    The bound Engine or Connection for this thread.

    This property may be assigned an Engine or Connection, or assigned a string or URL to automatically create a basic Engine for this bind with `create_engine()`.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData.`dispose()

    Dispose all bound engines, in all thread contexts.

  method `sqlalchemy.schema.ThreadLocalMetaData.`is_bound()

    True if there is a bind for this thread.